Surya, Hindu sun god
Surya is a Hindu sun god who travels daily across the sky in his horse-drawn chariot. In Hinduism, Surya is the sun god. His name literally means “sun”.
He is one of the few deities who have been worshipped continuously from the Rig Veda into the present day. Surya travels daily across the vault of the sky in a chariot drawn by seven horses.
He is regarded as the giver of life, of health, of enlightenment, and of the visibility of the world. In classical Hinduism he forms, together with Shiva, Vishnu, Devi, and Ganesha, the Panchayatana Puja, the worship of the five principal deities.
In the study of religion, Surya is regarded as the most important example of the Indo-Iranian connections, since his Iranian counterpart Mithra is closely related.
Table of Contents
Mythology and Origin
In the Rig Veda, Surya is one of the central deities. The hymns dedicated to him, above all Rig Veda 1.50, 1.115, and 10.37, describe him as the “all-seeing eye of heaven”, as the “giver of light”, and as the “father of gods and of men”.
In early Vedism several solar forms exist: Surya (the sun as the visible disc), Savitr (the enlivening solar force), Mitra (the contract-protecting aspect), Pushan (the path-guarding aspect), and Vivasvat (the radiant aspect). This plurality demonstrates the complexity of the Vedic solar cult.
In the classical tradition these aspects are drawn together under the name Surya, with Savitr and Vivasvat as his alternative names. His father is Kashyapa, one of the seven great sages (Saptarishis), and his mother is Aditi, mother of all Adityas (sun gods).
Surya thus belongs to the class of the Adityas, the twelve sun gods, who in the later tradition each represent one month of the year.
His wives are Sanjna (also Saranyu, daughter of Tvashtar) and her maid Chhaya (“shadow”). With Sanjna he begot Yama (god of the dead), Yami (Yamuna, goddess of the river Yamuna), and Vaivasvata Manu (progenitor of present-day humanity). With Chhaya he begot Shani (Saturn), Tapati, and Vishti.
This genealogy is of great significance in the history of religion, since it establishes the sun as the father of the god of the dead and of the progenitor of humankind. In “Hindu Myths” (1975), Wendy Doniger analysed this genealogy as a key to Vedic cosmology.
The development of the solar cult in India is one of the most complex subjects in Indology.
In the Rig Veda, several solar forms exist in parallel: Surya as the visible solar disc, Savitr as enlivening force, Mitra as the ethical and contractual aspect, Pushan as the protective force that guides the way, and Vivasvat as the primordial, cosmologically anchored sun.
This plurality is interesting from the standpoint of the phenomenology of religion: the sun as a central empirical phenomenon is grasped in several aspects, each with its own function and its own cultic anchoring.
The Kushana period (1st to 3rd century AD) brought a decisive turning point. Iranian-Scythian influences, through the Sasanian Empire and the mediating position of Central Asia, shaped the iconographic form of Surya.
The boots, the cloak, and the Persian dress in the earliest Surya reliefs (Bhumara, Mathura) point directly to this cultural exchange. In “Indische Sonnenpriester” (1966), Heinrich von Stietencron identified the Sakaldwipiya Brahmins, a Brahmin subgroup who trace their origin to Iranian magus-priests of the sun, as historical evidence of this transcultural influence.
Symbols and Attributes
Surya’s most striking attribute is his chariot, drawn by seven horses. These seven horses embody the seven colours of sunlight, the seven rays, or the seven days of the week. His charioteer is Aruna, the “reddish one”, also identified with the dawn. Aruna sits between Surya and the horses.
Surya is typically depicted with two or four arms. In his hands he holds two fully opened lotus flowers, which embody his sun-like radiance. His garment is red or golden, his ornaments are of gold. On his chest he bears a pattern of rays, and rays of light emanate from him.
An important attribute is his nimbus or aureole, a halo of light around the head. This aureole is one of the oldest iconographic features of Surya and is found already in the Kushana-period reliefs (1st to 3rd century AD). It also has parallels in Buddhist and Christian iconography.
An unusual iconographic peculiarity is that Surya wears boots in many Indian depictions. These boots point to the Iranian-Scythian influence of the Kushana period, when the solar cult was influenced by Mithra traditions from Central Asia.
This iconographic detail is an important indication of the transcultural connectedness of the solar cult. John Marshall, Stella Kramrisch, and Heinrich von Stietencron have documented this connection well.
Cult and Worship
Surya’s principal festival is Makara Sankranti (mid-January), which marks the beginning of the solstice cycle, when the sun enters Capricorn (Makara).
In South India the festival is celebrated as Pongal, in West India as Uttarayan, and in North India as Sankranti or Khichdi. In all of these forms it concerns the sun, the harvest, and a new beginning.
A second important festival is Chhath Puja (above all in Bihar, Jharkhand, eastern Uttar Pradesh, and Nepal), which is celebrated in November. Women fast for four days, stand in the water, and pray to Surya at sunrise and sunset.
Chhath is among the most important religious festivals of North India and is one of the few festivals devoted almost exclusively to the solar cult.
The most important Surya temples of India are the Konark Sun Temple (Odisha, 13th century, World Heritage Site), the Modhera Sun Temple (Gujarat, 11th century), and the Martand Sun Temple (Kashmir, 8th century).
The Konark temple is designed as a vast stone chariot with twelve wheels and seven horses, and is regarded as a principal work of Indian sacred architecture.
The daily practice of the Surya Namaskar (sun salutation), a sequence of twelve yogic postures, is one of the best-known Hindu practices worldwide.
Originally a liturgical element of the Vedic Sandhya Vandana rituals (morning prayer), the Surya Namaskar has spread in modern yoga practice as a physical exercise. The twelve mantras assigned to it (each a name of Surya) are recited during its performance.
The Gayatri mantra (Rig Veda 3.62.10) is one of the holiest mantras of Hinduism and is addressed to Savitr, a form of Surya: “Let us meditate on the glorious light of the divine Savitr, who may illumine our thoughts.” This mantra is recited above all by Brahmins several times a day and is regarded as the most important Vedic prayer.
Important Myths
The central myth is the story of Surya and Sanjna. Sanjna could not endure the blinding light of her husband, created a double (Chhaya, “shadow”), and fled into the forest, where she transformed herself into a mare and practised asceticism.
Surya noticed the exchange only late, when Chhaya treated his own children differently. He sought Sanjna, found her as a mare, and transformed himself into a stallion.
From this union the Ashvins arose, the divine physicians and horsemen. Surya then went to Tvashtar (Sanjna’s father), who ground off a part of Surya’s radiance so that Sanjna could endure her husband.
From the ground-off rays Tvashtar forged weapons for the gods. This myth is elaborated in the Markandeya Purana, the Vishnu Purana, and the Bhagavata Purana.
A second myth is that of Karna, the first son of Kunti in the Mahabharata. Kunti, in her youth endowed by the sage Durvasa with a mantra that summoned any god, secretly tried out the mantra and called upon Surya.
Surya appeared and begot Karna with her, who was born with golden armour and earrings made of sunbeams. Kunti, still unmarried, set Karna adrift in the river.
Karna became a tragic figure of the Mahabharata, a hero on the wrong side of the war. This myth has an enormous presence in Indian art, literature, and popular belief.
A third myth connects Surya with the Krishna avatar. In the Bhagavata Purana it is told that Krishna came into conflict with Satrajit, the owner of the wondrous solar gem Syamantaka.
The stone was a gift from Surya to Satrajit. This episode weaves Surya into the Krishna narratives and underlines his significance in the classical Hindu cosmos.
The tale of Karna in the Mahabharata is one of the most dramatic religious narratives of Indian literature. Karna, born as the son of Surya and Kunti, is abandoned and raised by a charioteer.
He becomes one of the greatest warriors of his time, yet fights on the wrong side (with the Kauravas against the Pandavas).
In the Kurukshetra war he dies at the hands of Arjuna, his half-brother. Karna’s tragic fate has received countless adaptations in Indian literature and in modern Indian theatre. He is the paradigmatic heroic figure of Hindu mythology, whose greatness is betrayed by the circumstances of his birth.
From the standpoint of the sociology of religion, the Karna narrative is of great importance. It addresses the tension between birth status (Karna is in fact a Kshatriya prince) and social reality (he is treated as the son of a charioteer, that is, a Sudra).
This tension was often read in the Indian tradition as a critique of the rigid caste system. In “The Hindus: An Alternative History” (2009), Wendy Doniger analysed Karna as an example of Hindu self-criticism of the caste system.
Relations within the Pantheon
Surya is the father of Yama (god of the dead), Yami (goddess Yamuna), Vaivasvata Manu (progenitor of present-day humanity), Karna (hero of the Mahabharata), Shani (Saturn), Sugriva (monkey king in the Ramayana), and the Asvinikumaras (divine physicians). This rich fatherhood makes Surya one of the genealogically most important deities of Hinduism.
Toward other Vedic deities he behaves cooperatively. Indra, Agni, and Varuna are his companions in the Vedic pantheon. In the late classical tradition, Surya is sometimes read as a manifestation of Vishnu (Surya-Narayana) or Shiva (Surya-Bhairava), which reflects the increasing monistic tendency of Hinduism.
Surya’s counterpart (in comparative mythology) is the moon Soma or Chandra. Both regulate time and the calendar. In the Vedic system, Soma is the moon and at the same time the ritual drink. Surya’s brightness and Soma’s coolness stand opposite each other as complementary principles.
Reception and Influence
In classical Sanskrit literature, Surya is central in many works. The Mahabharata narrative of Karna is one of the most striking. Kalidasa devotes verses to Surya in the “Raghuvamsha”. The epic works of Tamil Nadu, above all the “Silappatikaram” and the “Manimekalai” (5th to 6th century), refer to Surya as a central cosmic power.
In the Saura sect (the sect of Surya worshippers), which was active above all in Bihar, Bengal, and Odisha from the 5th to the 14th century, Surya stood at the centre of religious practice.
This sect had its own texts, among them the Saura Purana. Today the sect exists only in remnants, above all among the Sakaldwipiya Brahmins, who form a distinct Brahmin subgroup within the Surya worshippers.
In Buddhism, Surya was integrated in several forms. The bodhisattva Suryaprabha (“solar radiance”) is among the important Mahayana figures. In Tibetan Buddhism, Surya appears as Nyima, and in the Chinese tradition as Tai Yang Xing Jun. This transcultural diffusion shows the universal significance of the solar cult.
In the visual arts, the aforementioned sun temples (Konark, Modhera, Martand) are the most significant testimonies. Alongside them, numerous smaller temples and images exist, from the Gupta period up to the 13th century. In modern Indian art, above all in bazaar art, Surya is ubiquitous.
Classification in the Study of Religion
Surya belongs to the class of the Adityas, an ancient Vedic group of gods whose Iranian parallel are the Aditya Yazatas of the Avesta. The Indo-Iranian connection is particularly well documented in the history of religion.
Mithra (Vedic Mitra, Iranian Mithra) is the most important point of connection. Both share common functions: the protection of contracts, solar aspects, and ethical vigilance. In the Roman cult of Mithras of the imperial period (1st to 4th century AD), this ancient solar tradition lived on.
In “Indische Sonnenpriester” (1966) and “Surya” (1981), Heinrich von Stietencron presented the history of the Indian solar cult in detail. The Iranian-Scythian influence of the Kushana period shaped the iconographic form of Surya (with boots and cloak). This cultural exchange is one of the most striking examples of trans-religious connections in Asia.
From the standpoint of the phenomenology of religion, Surya belongs to the circle of sun gods who appear in practically all cultures. In “Patterns in Comparative Religion” (1958), Mircea Eliade classified solar cults as one of the universal religious structures.
Surya is the principal Hindu form of this universal motif, with a particular connection to the calculation of time, ethical vigilance, and cosmic order.
The Indo-Iranian connection of the solar cult is one of the best-documented subjects in comparative religious studies. Mithra (Vedic Mitra, Iranian Mithra) is the central connecting figure. In both traditions, Mithra is the contract-protecting solar aspect who oversees the ethical truthfulness of human beings.
In the Roman cult of Mithras of the imperial period (1st to 4th century AD), this ancient solar tradition lived on in a peculiar mystery form. The Roman cult of Mithras was strongly shaped in its mythologies and iconographies by the Iranian Mithra origin, yet developed independently into a religion of its own.
Frans Cumont’s “Les mystères de Mithra” (1900) and Maarten Vermaseren’s “Mithras: The Secret God” (1963) are the classic works on this transcultural history.
The more recent research of Roger Beck (“The Religion of the Mithras Cult”, 2006) has described the Mithra-Surya connection in a more differentiated way. Direct genetic relationships can be traced back only to the Indo-Iranian substrate; the later developments proceed largely independently.
The universality of the solar cult as a religious phenomenon was described phenomenologically by Mircea Eliade in “Patterns in Comparative Religion” (1958). Surya, Helios, Mithras, Sol Invictus, Aten, Inti (Inca), and Amaterasu (Japan) are variations of a single basic type.
The specific form of Surya in the Hindu pantheon is distinguished by the combination of astronomical precision (chariot with seven horses), ethical vigilance (above all in the Mitra form), and cosmological centrality.
Sources and Further Reading
Primary sources: Rig Veda (above all 1.50, 1.115, 10.37, ca. 1500-1200 BC), Atharva Veda, Mahabharata (especially the Karna narrative), Markandeya Purana, Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Saura Purana. Works: Aditya Hridayam (in the Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda 105), Surya Sahasranama. English translations: Rig Veda by Stephanie Jamison/Joel Brereton (2014), Markandeya Purana by F. Eden Pargiter (1904).
Secondary literature: Heinrich von Stietencron, “Indische Sonnenpriester” (1966) and “Surya” (1981); David Kinsley, “Hindu Goddesses” (1986, on the Aditya goddesses); Wendy Doniger, “Hindu Myths” (1975); Heinrich Zimmer, “Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization” (1946); Klaus Klostermaier, “A Survey of Hinduism” (3rd ed. 2007); Axel Michaels, “Der Hinduismus” (2nd ed. 2006); J. C. Heesterman, “The Inner Conflict of Tradition” (1985); Vasudeva S. Agrawala, “Solar Symbolism in the Vedas“.
