{"id":136876,"date":"2026-09-03T00:10:49","date_gmt":"2026-09-03T00:10:49","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/?page_id=136876"},"modified":"2026-09-03T01:14:34","modified_gmt":"2026-09-03T01:14:34","slug":"baal-hammon-kartagisk-hogsta-gud","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/sv\/baal-hammon-kartagisk-hogsta-gud\/","title":{"rendered":"Baal-Hammon \u2013 Kartagisk h\u00f6gsta gud"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"136876\" class=\"elementor elementor-136876 elementor-2628 elementor-bc-flex-widget\" data-elementor-post-type=\"page\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-hero e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-hero\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-hl e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-hl\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-htxt e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-htxt\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-h1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-h1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Baal-Hammon, puniskt-kartagisk h\u00f6gsta gud och Saturnus Africanus<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-lead elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-lead\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon (puniskt <em>b\u02bfl \u1e25mn<\/em>) \u00e4r den h\u00f6gsta manliga guden i det puniska Kartago och dess kolonier. Han f\u00f6rekommer regelbundet tillsammans med <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/sv\/tanit-karthagos-hogsta-gudinna\/\">Tanit<\/a> och \u00e4r mottagare av offerg\u00e5vorna fr\u00e5n tofet. Under den romerska perioden identifierades han med Saturnus.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-pillc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-pillc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-pills elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-pills\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"iwg-pill-row\"><span class=\"iwg-klasse-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Gud i den feniciska traditionen.\">Gud<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/sv\/fenicier-och-karthago-baal-tanit-skyddstradition\/\" class=\"iwg-kultur-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Mytologi i den feniciska traditionen.\">Fenicisk<\/a><span class=\"iwg-tradition-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"H\u00f6gsta gudom.\">H\u00f6gsta gudom<\/span><\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-tocc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-tocc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-toc elementor-toc--minimized-on-tablet elementor-widget elementor-widget-table-of-contents\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;headings_by_tags&quot;:[&quot;h2&quot;,&quot;h3&quot;],&quot;minimize_box&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;marker_view&quot;:&quot;bullets&quot;,&quot;no_headings_message&quot;:&quot;Inga rubriker hittades p\\u00e5 den h\\u00e4r sidan.&quot;,&quot;exclude_headings_by_selector&quot;:[],&quot;icon&quot;:{&quot;value&quot;:&quot;fas fa-circle&quot;,&quot;library&quot;:&quot;fa-solid&quot;,&quot;rendered_tag&quot;:&quot;&lt;svg class=\\&quot;e-font-icon-svg e-fas-circle\\&quot; viewBox=\\&quot;0 0 512 512\\&quot; xmlns=\\&quot;http:\\\/\\\/www.w3.org\\\/2000\\\/svg\\&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=\\&quot;M256 8C119 8 8 119 8 256s111 248 248 248 248-111 248-248S393 8 256 8z\\&quot;&gt;&lt;\\\/path&gt;&lt;\\\/svg&gt;&quot;},&quot;minimized_on&quot;:&quot;tablet&quot;,&quot;hierarchical_view&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;min_height&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"table-of-contents.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__header\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-toc__header-title\">\n\t\t\t\tInneh\u00e5llsf\u00f6rteckning\t\t\t<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--expand\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Inhaltsverzeichnis \u00f6ffnen\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-down\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M207.029 381.476L12.686 187.132c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941l22.667-22.667c9.357-9.357 24.522-9.375 33.901-.04L224 284.505l154.745-154.021c9.379-9.335 24.544-9.317 33.901.04l22.667 22.667c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941L240.971 381.476c-9.373 9.372-24.569 9.372-33.942 0z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--collapse\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Inhaltsverzeichnis schlie\u00dfen\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M240.971 130.524l194.343 194.343c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941l-22.667 22.667c-9.357 9.357-24.522 9.375-33.901.04L224 227.495 69.255 381.516c-9.379 9.335-24.544 9.317-33.901-.04l-22.667-22.667c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941L207.03 130.525c9.372-9.373 24.568-9.373 33.941-.001z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-toc__iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" class=\"elementor-toc__body\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__spinner-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<svg class=\"elementor-toc__spinner eicon-animation-spin e-font-icon-svg e-eicon-loading\" aria-hidden=\"true\" viewBox=\"0 0 1000 1000\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M500 975V858C696 858 858 696 858 500S696 142 500 142 142 304 142 500H25C25 237 238 25 500 25S975 237 975 500 763 975 500 975Z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-hr e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-hr\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-heroimg iwg-hero-image elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-heroimg\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"683\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-683x1024.webp\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-2848\" alt=\"Baal Hammon - G\u00f6tter aus der Phoenizisch-Tradition, historisch-illustrativ\" srcset=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-683x1024.webp 683w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-200x300.webp 200w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-768x1152.webp 768w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon.webp 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 683px) 100vw, 683px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Kontextualisering och kortprofil<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon \u00e4r en av de viktigaste gudomarna i den v\u00e4stra medelhavsv\u00e4rldens puniska kultur. Sabatino Moscati har i <em>Il mondo dei Fenici<\/em> (1966) visat att Baal-Hammon visserligen \u00e4r belagd i det feniciska moderlandet, men d\u00e4r hade en underordnad st\u00e4llning; i Kartago n\u00e5dde han pantheonets topp och delar denna position med <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/sv\/tanit-karthagos-hogsta-gudinna\/\">Tanit<\/a>. Inom den <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/sv\/fenicier-och-karthago-baal-tanit-skyddstradition\/\">feniciska traditionen<\/a> \u00e4r han den prototypiska puniska h\u00f6gsta guden.<\/p><p>Maria Eugenia Aubet har i <em>The Phoenicians and the West<\/em> (2001) dokumenterat den medelhavsomfattande spridningen; Baal-Hammon-helgedomar \u00e4r belagda i Kartago, Motya, Tharros, Sulcis, Hadrumetum och m\u00e5nga andra platser. Under den romerska kejsartiden lever hans kult vidare som Saturnus Africanus och n\u00e5r en anm\u00e4rkningsv\u00e4rd best\u00e4ndighet i den numidisk-mauretanska provinsen fram till 4:e \u00e5rhundradet e.Kr.<\/p><p>Religionshistoriskt representerar Baal-Hammon typen av h\u00f6gsta gud med ktoniska och sol\u00e4ra aspekter. Marcel Le Glay har i <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (1966) visat att identifikationen med den romerske Saturnus bygger p\u00e5 Baal-Hammons dubbla natur: han \u00e4r b\u00e5de s\u00e4d- och sk\u00f6rdegud (saturnisk aspekt) och ktonisk fadersgud.<\/p><p>Tofet-stelarna och de m\u00e5nga inskrifterna dokumenterar hans <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Summan av de religi\u00f6sa v\u00f6rdnadshandlingar som \u00e4gnas en gudom eller helig gestalt.\" tabindex=\"0\">kult<\/span> som ett centralt religionshistoriskt bel\u00e4gg.<\/p><p>Baal-Hammons fortlevnad under den romerska kejsartiden som Saturnus Africanus \u00e4r ett av de mest anm\u00e4rkningsv\u00e4rda exemplen p\u00e5 religionshistorisk kontinuitet efter den puniska statens politiska fall. Mer \u00e4n tv\u00e5tusen Saturnus-stelar \u00e4r bevarade fr\u00e5n de nordafrikanska provinserna, fr\u00e5n 1:a till 4:e \u00e5rhundradet e.Kr.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Namn och etymologi<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Namnet <em>b\u02bfl \u1e25mn<\/em> \u00e4r sammansatt av <em>b\u02bfl<\/em> &#8217;herre&#8217; och <em>\u1e25mn<\/em>, vars etymologi \u00e4r omtvistad. En tolkning kopplar <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> till roten <em>\u1e25mm<\/em> &#8217;vara het&#8217; och ser Baal-Hammon som &#8217;hettans herre&#8217;, troligen med en sol\u00e4r aspekt.<\/p><p>En annan tolkning ser <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> som ortnamnet &#8217;Hammon&#8217; (m\u00f6jligen en plats i Fenicien) och Baal-Hammon som &#8217;herre av Hammon&#8217;. En tredje m\u00f6jlighet kopplar <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> till f\u00f6rem\u00e5l f\u00f6r r\u00f6kofferkult (&#8217;r\u00f6kaltare&#8217;).<\/p><p>Charles Krahmalkov har i <em>A Phoenician-Punic Grammar<\/em> (2001) sammanst\u00e4llt de epigrafiska varianterna; i inskrifter f\u00f6rekommer han som <em>b\u02bfl \u1e25mn<\/em> eller kort <em>b\u02bfl<\/em>. Den grekiska \u00e5tergivningen \u00e4r \u0392\u03ac\u03b1\u03bb-\u1f08\u03bc\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd (Baal-Ammon), och under den hellenistiska tiden identifierades han ibland \u00e4ven med den egyptiske Amun (i sp\u00e5r). Den romerska identifikationen med Saturnus \u00e4r den mest varaktiga och pr\u00e4glar den afrikansk-romerska religionshistorien.<\/p><p>I det hebreiska materialet f\u00f6rekommer Hammon som ortnamn i Galileen; om det finns ett direkt historiskt samband \u00e4r oklart. I arameiska inskrifter fr\u00e5n Palmyra f\u00f6rekommer en <em>\u02bfolam<\/em>-gud med liknande funktioner som Baal-Hammon; \u00e4ven h\u00e4r \u00e4r det exakta sl\u00e4ktskapet omtvistat. Religionshistoriskt \u00e4r Baal-Hammon en specifikt v\u00e4stlig utveckling.<\/p><p>En ytterligare etymologisk hypotes kopplar <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> till arameiska <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> &#8217;f\u00f6rbarma sig&#8217;, vilket skulle ge en teologiskt djup konnotation; den \u00e4r dock inte spr\u00e5khistoriskt belagd.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Beskrivning och ikonografi<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon framst\u00e4lls i den puniska ikonografin oftast som en tronande, sk\u00e4ggig gubbe med tjurhornskrona, l\u00e5ngt veckat plagg och en spira. Denna bildtradition \u00e4r rikt belagd p\u00e5 tofet-stelarna och skiljer honom fr\u00e5n <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/sv\/baal-hadad-fenicisk-vadergud\/\">Baal-Hadad<\/a>, som framst\u00e4lls som en ungdomlig v\u00e4dergud med lyft yxa. Baal-Hammons \u00e5lderdomliga profil f\u00f6rbinder honom teologiskt med den ugaritiske El och med Saturnus.<\/p><p>Hans heliga djur \u00e4r v\u00e4duren eller bocken; i de puniska offerritualerna var v\u00e4duren det f\u00f6redragna offerdjuret. P\u00e5 n\u00e5gra stelar framst\u00e4lls han flankerad av sfinxer eller griffar.<\/p><p>I Kartago fanns en kolossal bronsstaty av Baal-Hammon uppst\u00e4lld i stadstemplet; den omn\u00e4mns i k\u00e4llorna om tofet-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"G\u00e5va till en gudom f\u00f6r att uttrycka tacksamhet, b\u00f6n eller v\u00f6rdnad.\" tabindex=\"0\">offren<\/span> och s\u00e4gs ha haft mekanismer som l\u00e4t offerdjur eller barn falla ner i en eld under statyn. K\u00e4llkritiken kring detta \u00e4r omtvistad och bed\u00f6ms idag snarare med tillbakah\u00e5llsamhet.<\/p><p>Under den hellenistisk-romerska perioden sm\u00e4lter Baal-Hammon-ikonografin alltmer samman med Saturnus-traditionen; de senromerska Saturnus-stelarna fr\u00e5n Nordafrika (3:e och 4:e \u00e5rhundradet e.Kr.) visar guden som en sk\u00e4ggig gubbe med lie, exakt enligt Saturnus-f\u00f6rebilden. Denna Saturnus-Africanus-ikonografi \u00e4r Marcel Le Glays huvudtema och behandlas utf\u00f6rligt i hans monografi.<\/p><p>En imponerande arkeologisk k\u00e4lla \u00e4r de m\u00e5nga bronsstatyetterna fr\u00e5n tofet, som visar Baal-Hammon tronande med upplyft hand, en v\u00e4lsignelsegest. Dessa statyetter st\u00e4lldes upp dels i tofet sj\u00e4lvt som offerg\u00e5vor, dels i bostadshus.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Mytologiska ber\u00e4ttelser<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Frist\u00e5ende Baal-Hammon-myter finns inte bevarade; liksom hos <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/sv\/tanit-karthagos-hogsta-gudinna\/\">Tanit<\/a> \u00e4r han prim\u00e4rt en kultisk-rituell gestalt. <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Epok f\u00f6r den grekiska och romerska kulturen, ungef\u00e4r 800 f.Kr. till 600 e.Kr.\" tabindex=\"0\">Antika<\/span> ber\u00e4ttelser (Diodoros, Polybios, Plutarchos, Tertullianus) omn\u00e4mner barnoffer i tofeten som hans viktigaste kultakt.<\/p><p>Diodoros (20.14) ber\u00e4ttar utf\u00f6rligt om ett stort barnoffer \u00e5r 310 f.Kr. n\u00e4r Karthago bel\u00e4grades av Agathokles av Syrakusai; i en n\u00f6dsituation offrade man 200 f\u00f6rn\u00e4ma pojkar f\u00f6r att blidka gudens vrede.<\/p><p>Historiciteten i dessa ber\u00e4ttelser har varit kontroversiellt diskuterad i generationer; de utg\u00f6r grekisk-romerska polemiska k\u00e4llor och m\u00e5ste granskas kritiskt. De arkeologiska fynden fr\u00e5n tofeten bekr\u00e4ftar dock att sp\u00e4dbarn och sm\u00e5barn begravdes i betydande antal; om detta alltid skedde som <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"G\u00e5va till en gudom f\u00f6r att uttrycka tacksamhet, \u00f6nskan eller v\u00f6rdnad.\" tabindex=\"0\">offer<\/span> eller ibland \u00e4ven som naturligt avlidna, \u00e4r f\u00f6rem\u00e5l f\u00f6r tofet-kontroversen.<\/p><p>Augustinus av Hippo polemiserar i <em>De civitate Dei<\/em> 7.19 mot Saturnus Africanus-kulterna och beskriver barnoffer som &#8217;crudelis daemonum cultus&#8217;. Denna <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"\u00d6verg\u00e5ngsepok mellan antiken och medeltiden, ungef\u00e4r 3:e till 7:e \u00e5rhundradet.\" tabindex=\"0\">senantika<\/span> polemik h\u00f6r till konstruktionen av det kristna Karthago och b\u00f6r l\u00e4sas med f\u00f6rsiktighet historiskt, men den \u00e5terspeglar den seglivade kopplingen mellan Baal-Hammon och barnoffer-motiv i den antika f\u00f6rest\u00e4llningsv\u00e4rlden. Den vetenskapliga bed\u00f6mningen av denna praktik \u00e4r fortfarande omtvistad.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Kult och v\u00f6rdnad<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammons huvudsakliga kultplats var tofeten i Karthago, samt tofeter i Motya, Tharros, Sulcis, Hadrumetum, Cirta, Lambafundi och \u00e5tskilliga andra platser. Vid varje s\u00e5dant helgedom var Baal-Hammon huvudmottagare av votivg\u00e5vorna, ofta tillsammans med <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/sv\/tanit-karthagos-hogsta-gudinna\/\">Tanit<\/a>. Votivinskrifterna f\u00f6ljer en standardformel: &#8217;Till herren Baal-Hammon, det som N.N. har lovat, eftersom han b\u00f6nh\u00f6rde honom&#8217;.<\/p><p>D\u00e4rut\u00f6ver fanns stadsbaserade Baal-Hammon-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En byggnad som anv\u00e4nds f\u00f6r v\u00f6rdnad av en eller flera gudomligheter.\" tabindex=\"0\">tempel<\/span>, till exempel i Thinissut och i Karthago sj\u00e4lvt (<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En byggnad som anv\u00e4nds f\u00f6r v\u00f6rdnad av en eller flera gudomligheter.\" tabindex=\"0\">tempel<\/span> p\u00e5 Byrsa-kullen). Sabatino Moscati har dokumenterat den puniska tempelarkitekturen i flera publikationer.<\/p><p><span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En byggnad som anv\u00e4nds f\u00f6r v\u00f6rdnad av en eller flera gudomligheter.\" tabindex=\"0\">Templen<\/span> f\u00f6ljer en tredelad plan: f\u00f6rg\u00e5rd, huvudsal, allraheligaste. Inuti stod <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Bildlig framst\u00e4llning av en gudomlighet som v\u00f6rdas i templet eller helgedomen.\" tabindex=\"0\">kultbilden<\/span> eller en &#8217;mazzeba&#8217; (helig pelare), d\u00e4r den senare var typisk f\u00f6r den feniciska bildl\u00f6sheten kring den h\u00f6gsta <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En varelse som dyrkas som gudomlig inom en religion.\" tabindex=\"0\">gudomen<\/span>.<\/p><p>Under den romerska kejsartiden fortsatte Baal-Hammon att dyrkas som Saturnus Africanus. Hans <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En byggnad som anv\u00e4nds f\u00f6r v\u00f6rdnad av en eller flera gudomligheter.\" tabindex=\"0\">tempel<\/span> i Karthago d\u00f6ptes om och <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Genom en religi\u00f6s handling \u00f6verl\u00e4mnad \u00e5t det heliga och d\u00e4rmed lyft ur det vardagliga.\" tabindex=\"0\">invigdes<\/span> p\u00e5 nytt.<\/p><p>Antalet Saturnus-stelar i Nordafrika \u00f6verstiger antalet f\u00f6r alla andra romerska gudomligheter i regionen. Baal-Hammon-Saturnus var fram till 400-talet e.Kr. den viktigaste <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En varelse som dyrkas som gudomlig inom en religion.\" tabindex=\"0\">gudomen<\/span> i de afrikanska provinserna. Kristnandet och vandalernas invasion satte punkt f\u00f6r hans <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Summan av de religi\u00f6sa v\u00f6rdnadshandlingar som \u00e4gnas en gudomlighet eller helig gestalt.\" tabindex=\"0\">kult<\/span>.<\/p><p>En viktig numismatisk k\u00e4lla \u00e4r de karthagiska tetradrakmerna fr\u00e5n 300-talet f.Kr., som visar Baal-Hammons tjurhornskrona som skyddsformel p\u00e5 framsidan. Mynten pr\u00e4glades i stort antal f\u00f6r att avl\u00f6na de karthagiska h\u00e4rarna och spred Baal-Hammons bildprogram \u00e4nda till Spanien och Sicilien.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Skyddspraxis och apotrop\u00e4iskt<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon var skyddsgud f\u00f6r staden, familjen och sk\u00f6rdarna. I de puniska inskrifterna framtr\u00e4der han som mottagare av <em>n\u0113der<\/em>-l\u00f6ften i n\u00f6dsituationer: inf\u00f6r resor, inf\u00f6r strider, vid sjukdomar, vid f\u00f6dslar. Frekvensen av <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Den bedjande eller besv\u00e4rjande tilltalet av en gudom eller makt.\" tabindex=\"0\">\u00e5kallandet<\/span> av honom i privata votivg\u00e5vor visar den intensiva privatfrommheten hos den puniska befolkningen.<\/p><p>Vid husentr\u00e9er och i bostadsrum anv\u00e4ndes hans symboler <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Ont avv\u00e4rjande: om tecken och f\u00f6rem\u00e5l avsedda att h\u00e5lla skadliga inflytelser p\u00e5 avst\u00e5nd.\" tabindex=\"0\">apotrop\u00e4iskt<\/span>: tjurhornskronan, sk\u00e4ran och &#8217;caduceus&#8217;-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Ett tecken som st\u00e5r f\u00f6r en f\u00f6rest\u00e4llning eller betydelse.\" tabindex=\"0\">symbolen<\/span>, som i den puniska v\u00e4rlden regelbundet f\u00f6rknippas med Baal-Hammon. Bronsstatyetter av en sk\u00e4ggig, tronande gud med tjurhornskrona har hittats p\u00e5 m\u00e5nga puniska boplatser.<\/p><p data-nosnippet=\"true\">Ur vetenskapligt perspektiv \u00e4r Baal-Hammons skyddsfunktion starkt f\u00f6rbunden med rikets ordning, men samtidigt f\u00f6rankrad p\u00e5 ett personligt-familj\u00e4rt plan. Tofet-praktiken b\u00f6r f\u00f6rst\u00e5s som en s\u00e4rskild form av krisfromhet, utan att den idag ska tolkas vetenskapligt-positivt. iWell Guard registrerar Baal-Hammon som en historisk-religionshistorisk figur utan koppling till n\u00e5gra aktuella helandeanspr\u00e5k.<\/p><p>Den n\u00e4ra kopplingen mellan Baal-Hammon och det puniska krigf\u00f6randet \u00e4r v\u00e4l dokumenterad; Hannibals ed vid Baal-Hammons <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Upph\u00f6jd plats eller bord f\u00f6r offer och religi\u00f6sa handlingar.\" tabindex=\"0\">altare<\/span> vid nio \u00e5rs \u00e5lder, att alltid betrakta Rom som en evig fiende, \u00e4r en av de mest ber\u00f6mda antika anekdoterna och st\u00e5r i traditionen av de puniska krigsederna.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Paralleller i andra kulturer<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon \u00e4r historiskt besl\u00e4ktad med den ugaritiska El (gammal fadergud), med den mesopotamiska Anu, med den romerska Saturnus och med den grekiska Kronos. Identifikationen med Saturnus \u00e4r den mest varaktiga; Marcel Le Glay visade i <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (1966) att denna synkretism grundl\u00e4ggande pr\u00e4glade den afrikanska Saturnus-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Summan av religi\u00f6sa v\u00f6rdnadshandlingar f\u00f6r en gudom eller helig gestalt.\" tabindex=\"0\">kulten<\/span> under kejsartiden.<\/p><p>Med Kronos delar Baal-Hammon profilen av den \u00e5ldrade fadergudens gestalt med associationer till barnoffer; den grekiska Kronos-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En \u00f6verl\u00e4mnad ber\u00e4ttelse om gudar, ursprung och v\u00e4rldens ordning.\" tabindex=\"0\">myten<\/span> inneh\u00e5ller att han slukar sina egna barn, vilket i den hellenistiska uppfattningen kopplades till de karthagiska tofetoffren. Plutarchos (<em>De superstitione<\/em>) g\u00f6r denna koppling explicit.<\/p><p>Med <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/sv\/kumarbi-hurritisk-gudafader\/\">Kumarbi<\/a> i den <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/sv\/hettitiskt-anatoliskt-tarhunna-tusen-gudar-skyddspraxis\/\">hettitiska traditionen<\/a> delar Baal-Hammon typen av den st\u00f6rtade eller undantr\u00e4ngda fadergudens gestalt. Religionshistoriskt tillh\u00f6r han den internationella familjen av \u00e4ldre medelhavsfadergudar, vars funktion delvis tr\u00e4ngdes undan av den yngre generationen stormgudar. I den romerska provinsen Africa Proconsularis levde denna gammelmedelhavstradition kvar under ovanligt l\u00e5ng tid.<\/p><p>Kopplingen mellan Baal-Hammon och den egyptiska Amon-Ra aktiverades under den hellenistiska perioden; oasen Siwa med sitt Amon-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En plats eller institution d\u00e4r ett gudomligt besked h\u00e4mtas.\" tabindex=\"0\">orakel<\/span> var l\u00e4tt att n\u00e5 fr\u00e5n Karthago, och n\u00e5gra k\u00e4llor ber\u00e4ttar om karthagiska pilgrimsresor dit. Den historiska betydelsen av denna synkretism \u00e4r omtvistad men anm\u00e4rkningsv\u00e4rd.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Nutida mottagande och forskning<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Forskningen om Baal-Hammon h\u00e5ller idag h\u00f6g niv\u00e5. Marcel Le Glays <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (1966) \u00e4r en klassisk standardreferens; Sabatino Moscati, Maria Eugenia Aubet, H\u00e9l\u00e8ne B\u00e9nichou-Safar och Lawrence Stager har l\u00e4mnat viktiga bidrag till tofetforskningen. Brian Doaks <em>Phoenician Aniconism<\/em> (2015) behandlar Baal-Hammons bildl\u00f6sa tradition. Josephine Quinns studier om punisk identitet har varit viktiga bidrag under senare \u00e5r.<\/p><p>I den popul\u00e4ra receptionen \u00e4r Baal-Hammon fr\u00e4mst k\u00e4nd genom tofetkontroversen och genom den <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Epok i den grekiska och romerska kulturen, cirka 800 f.Kr. till 600 e.Kr.\" tabindex=\"0\">antika<\/span> kristna polemiken; bilden \u00e4r f\u00f6rvr\u00e4ngd och g\u00f6r knappast den vetenskapliga verkligheten r\u00e4ttvisa. Mer nyanserade vetenskapliga skildringar finns i de n\u00e4mnda verken.<\/p><p>Vetenskapligt betraktas Baal-Hammon idag som ett centralt studieobjekt f\u00f6r den puniska religionen, f\u00f6r Saturnus-Africanus-traditionen och f\u00f6r medelhavsreligionens historia. Aktuella forskningsfokus ligger p\u00e5 bioarkeologisk tofetanalys, p\u00e5 Saturnus-Africanus-stelentraditionen och p\u00e5 fr\u00e5gan om den berbiska komponenten. iWell Guard registrerar honom som en historisk <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Summan av gudarna i en religion eller kultur.\" tabindex=\"0\">pantheon<\/span>-medlem.<\/p><p>Aktuell forskning av Josephine Quinn (<em>In Search of the Phoenicians<\/em>, 2018) har p\u00e5 nytt diskuterat den puniska identiteten och dess religi\u00f6sa sj\u00e4lvdefinition samt ifr\u00e5gasatt Baal-Hammons roll som &#8217;fenikernas gud&#8217;.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Litteratur och k\u00e4llor<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>F\u00f6ljande urval sammanfattar de viktigaste standardverken inom Baal-Hammon-forskningen. Det omfattar arkeologiska rapporter, religionshistoriska synteser och epigrafiska editioner. Marcel Le Glays monografi \u00e4r en klassisk referens; Moscati och Aubet ger den puniska ramen; Doak det ikonologiska perspektivet. Quinns nyare studie f\u00f6r forskningen in i den kritiska identitetsdiskussionen.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp2dce0c7c e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cp2dce0c7c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp22efe76a elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cp22efe76a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Tofetet i Karthago och stelefynden<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp207c89a8 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cp207c89a8\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp223f9336 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp223f9336\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Det viktigaste vittnesb\u00f6rdet om kulten av Baal Hammon \u00e4r inte en text utan ett omr\u00e5de. Det r\u00f6r sig om det s\u00e5 kallade Tofet i Karthago, ett helgedom i utkanten av den antika staden, i dagens stadsdel Salammb\u00f4. Utgr\u00e4vningarna inleddes p\u00e5 1920-talet. Avg\u00f6rande var kampanjen som den amerikanska arkeologen och hennes team genomf\u00f6rde p\u00e5 1970-talet under namnet &#8221;Punic Project&#8221;.<\/p><p>Omr\u00e5det inneh\u00e5ller tusentals sm\u00e5 urnor med de br\u00e4nda resterna av sp\u00e4dbarn och unga djur, ovanp\u00e5 dem uppst\u00e4llda stenstelar.<\/p><p>M\u00e5nga av dessa stelar b\u00e4r votivinskrifter i punisk skrift. Den vanliga formeln n\u00e4mner f\u00f6rst <em>Baal Hammon<\/em> och gudinnan <em>Tinnit<\/em> (ofta kallad &#8221;Tinnit, Baals ansikte&#8221;), sedan namnet p\u00e5 givaren och dennes \u00f6nskan.<\/p><p>Dessa inskrifter utg\u00f6r den t\u00e4taste epigrafiska k\u00e4llan f\u00f6r punisk religion \u00f6verhuvudtaget och g\u00f6r Baal Hammon till den b\u00e4st belagda karthagiska <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En varelse som dyrkas som gudomlig inom en religion.\" tabindex=\"0\">gudomen<\/span>.<\/p><p>Tolkningen av Tofetet har varit omtvistad sedan 1800-talet. <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Epok i den grekiska och romerska kulturen, cirka 800 f.Kr. till 600 e.Kr.\" tabindex=\"0\">Antika<\/span> grekiska och romerska f\u00f6rfattare som Diodoros och Plutarchos rapporterar om karthagiska barnoffer, och en del av forskningen ser i Tofetet en arkeologisk bekr\u00e4ftelse.<\/p><p>En motsatt uppfattning, f\u00f6retr\u00e4dd bland annat av Sabatino Moscati och senare av andra, tolkar omr\u00e5det som en gravplats f\u00f6r sp\u00e4dbarn som \u00e4nd\u00e5 redan avlidit. Nyare osteologiska unders\u00f6kningar av de br\u00e4nda benen har inte slutgiltigt avgjort debatten. F\u00f6r beskrivningen av Baal Hammon inneb\u00e4r detta att hans viktigaste kultplats samtidigt \u00e4r det mest omtvistade fyndet inom den puniska <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Vetenskapen som utforskar tidigare kulturer med hj\u00e4lp av materiella fynd.\" tabindex=\"0\">arkeologin<\/span>.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp2d8c90e4 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cp2d8c90e4\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp239ab422 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cp239ab422\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Interpretatio: Saturnus, Kronos och fortlevnaden under romersk tid<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp22113ba9 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cp22113ba9\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp234d4277 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp234d4277\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal Hammon f\u00f6rsvann inte med Karthagos f\u00f6rst\u00f6relse 146 f.Kr. I det romerska Nordafrika levde han vidare under namnet <em>Saturnus Africanus<\/em>, en av de mest v\u00e4l belagda kulterna i provinsen Africa.<\/p><p>Hundratals Saturn-stelar fr\u00e5n romersk tid visar att den puniska befolkningen fortsatte att dyrka sin gamla huvudgudom under romerskt namn, med egna ikonografiska drag, till exempel guden under en sl\u00f6ja eller med sk\u00e4ra.<\/p><p>Redan grekerna hade likst\u00e4llt Baal Hammon med <em>Kronos<\/em>, vilket spelar en s\u00e4rskild roll i ber\u00e4ttelserna om barnoffer, eftersom Kronos slukade sina egna barn.<\/p><p>Romarna valde sedan Saturnus, den latinska motsvarigheten till Kronos. Denna <em>interpretatio<\/em> \u00e4r f\u00f6r forskningen ett tveeggat verktyg: \u00e5 ena sidan visar den kontinuitet, \u00e5 andra sidan \u00f6verlagrar den den puniska gestalten med grekisk-romerska f\u00f6rest\u00e4llningar.<\/p><p>Fr\u00e5gan om vem Baal Hammon ursprungligen var kan d\u00e4rf\u00f6r inte besvaras enbart med den sena Saturnus-likst\u00e4llningen. Man diskuterar om binamnet <em>Hammon<\/em> syftar p\u00e5 ett ortnamn, exempelvis det nordsyriska Hamath eller ett berg, eller p\u00e5 det semitiska ordet f\u00f6r &#8221;gl\u00f6db\u00e4cken&#8221; respektive &#8221;r\u00f6kaltare&#8221;.<\/p><p>Eric Gubel, Paolo Xella och andra har forskat kring dessa fr\u00e5gor utan att n\u00e5gon konsensus uppn\u00e5tts. S\u00e4kert \u00e4r bara att den romerska Saturnus-masken \u00e4r det yngsta, inte det ursprungliga lagret av gestalten. Om den v\u00e4stsemitiska <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En varelse som dyrkas som gudomlig inom en religion.\" tabindex=\"0\">gudomen<\/span> med samma namnstam, se \u00e4ven <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/sv\/yam-fenicisk-havsgud\/\">Yam<\/a> i den ugaritiska <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Samtliga gudar inom en religion eller kultur.\" tabindex=\"0\">pantheon<\/span>.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-lit e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-lit\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-lith elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-lith\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Litteratur (urval)<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-litc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-litc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-litt elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-litt\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div data-nosnippet=\"true\"><ul><li>Marcel Le Glay: <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (Paris 1966)<\/li><li>Sabatino Moscati: <em>Il mondo dei Fenici<\/em> (Milano 1966)<\/li><li>Maria Eugenia Aubet: <em>The Phoenicians and the West<\/em> (Cambridge 2001)<\/li><li>H\u00e9l\u00e8ne B\u00e9nichou-Safar: <em>Le tophet de Salammb\u00f4 \u00e0 Carthage<\/em> (Rom 2004)<\/li><li>Brian Doak: <em>Phoenician Aniconism<\/em> (Atlanta 2015)<\/li><li>Josephine Quinn: <em>In Search of the Phoenicians<\/em> (Princeton 2018)<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgkw2-add-baalhammon e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgkw2-add-baalhammon\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgkw2-add-baalhammon-t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgkw2-add-baalhammon-t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon framtr\u00e4der som punisk-karthagisk h\u00f6gsta gud, vars tofet-helgedomar i Karthago vittnar om hans st\u00e4llning som h\u00f6gsta skyddsgudom; under den romerska perioden dyrkas han vidare som Saturnus Africanus.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-kwd e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-kwd\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-kwdc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-kwdc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-kwdt elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-kwdt\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><em>Relaterade nyckelbegrepp: Baal-Hammon Karthago Puniskt Saturnus Tofet Barnoffer Africana.<\/em><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-cc e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-cc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" id=\"iwg-cc-baal-hammon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccinner e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-ccinner\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-cch elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-cch\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">iWell Guard och skyddstraditioner<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-cct elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-cct\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div data-nosnippet=\"true\"><p>iWell Guard ansluter till den kulturhistoriska traditionen av b\u00e4rbara skyddsobjekt, i traditionen av <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/sv\/fenicier-och-karthago-baal-tanit-skyddstradition\/\">Feniciskt<\/a> och m\u00e5nga andra kulturer v\u00e4rlden \u00f6ver. 41 niv\u00e5er, \u00e4kta guld, platina, silver, tillverkad i Tyskland. 30 dagars \u00e5ngerr\u00e4tt.<\/p><\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb iwg-cc-button iwg-cc-cta-2026-05-13 elementor-widget elementor-widget-jet-button\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-ccb\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"jet-button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div 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Ingen medicinteknisk produkt. Inget l\u00f6fte om l\u00e4kning.<\/p><\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-disc e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-disc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-discw elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-discw\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<footer data-nosnippet=\"true\" class=\"iwg-disclaimer-block\"><p data-nosnippet=\"true\">iWell Guard \u00e4r <strong>ingen medicinteknisk produkt<\/strong> och ers\u00e4tter inte l\u00e4karv\u00e5rd eller psykoterapeutisk behandling. De religionsvetenskapliga inneh\u00e5llen \u00e4r kulturhistorisk inordning, ingen andlig praxisrekommendation.<\/p><\/footer>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":2848,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"elementor_header_footer","meta":{"_yoast_wpseo_focuskw":"Baal-Hammon Kartago h\u00f6gsta gud","_yoast_wpseo_title":"Baal-Hammon \u2013 Kartago h\u00f6gsta gud, tofet, Saturnus","_yoast_wpseo_metadesc":"Baal-Hammon \u00e4r Kartagos h\u00f6gsta manliga gud, make till Tanit och mottagare av tofet-offerg\u00e5vorna. 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