{"id":36621,"date":"2026-05-19T11:29:46","date_gmt":"2026-05-19T11:29:46","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/buddha-gautama-2\/"},"modified":"2026-07-29T11:32:41","modified_gmt":"2026-07-29T11:32:41","slug":"buddha-gautama","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/pt-br\/buddha-gautama\/","title":{"rendered":"Buddha (Gautama)"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"36621\" class=\"elementor elementor-36621 elementor-3035 elementor-bc-flex-widget\" data-elementor-post-type=\"page\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f92b4fb e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"f92b4fb\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b3d5d5a e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"b3d5d5a\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c3046ee e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"c3046ee\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-bf4012a elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"bf4012a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Buda Gautama, fundador do Budismo<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-fb2232c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"fb2232c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Siddhartha Gautama \u00e9, enquanto figura hist\u00f3rica, o buda fundador do Budismo. Do ponto de vista da ci\u00eancia das religi\u00f5es, importa distinguir entre a figura docente biograficamente identific\u00e1vel e a posterior reconfigura\u00e7\u00e3o m\u00edtico-religiosa.<\/p><p>Embora seja poss\u00edvel situar pontos de refer\u00eancia da sua atividade no nordeste da \u00cdndia do s\u00e9culo V antes da nossa era, a descri\u00e7\u00e3o da sua vida nos textos can\u00f3nicos apresenta j\u00e1 uma forte modela\u00e7\u00e3o hagiogr\u00e1fica. A investiga\u00e7\u00e3o atual segue, por isso, uma leitura dupla, que trata separadamente a plausibilidade hist\u00f3rica e a atribui\u00e7\u00e3o de significado religioso.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f5797f3 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"f5797f3\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8f2e7e8 elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"8f2e7e8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"iwg-pill-row\"><span class=\"iwg-klasse-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Deus \/ Deusa: poder supremo personificado no pante\u00e3o de uma cultura, com compet\u00eancias bem definidas: for\u00e7as da natureza, destino, guerra, fertilidade. Venerado por meio de cultos, sacrif\u00edcios e institui\u00e7\u00f5es templares.\">Deus<\/span><a href=\"\/pt-br\/deuses-budistas\/\" class=\"iwg-kultur-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Tradi\u00e7\u00e3o budista com Bodhisattvas, divindades protetoras, esp\u00edritos famintos e guardi\u00f5es do inferno.\">Budismo<\/a><\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8e27734 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"8e27734\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-000570b elementor-toc--minimized-on-tablet elementor-widget elementor-widget-table-of-contents\" data-id=\"000570b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;exclude_headings_by_selector&quot;:[],&quot;no_headings_message&quot;:&quot;Nenhum t\\u00edtulo foi encontrado nesta p\\u00e1gina.&quot;,&quot;headings_by_tags&quot;:[&quot;h2&quot;,&quot;h3&quot;],&quot;marker_view&quot;:&quot;bullets&quot;,&quot;icon&quot;:{&quot;value&quot;:&quot;fas fa-circle&quot;,&quot;library&quot;:&quot;fa-solid&quot;,&quot;rendered_tag&quot;:&quot;&lt;svg class=\\&quot;e-font-icon-svg e-fas-circle\\&quot; viewBox=\\&quot;0 0 512 512\\&quot; xmlns=\\&quot;http:\\\/\\\/www.w3.org\\\/2000\\\/svg\\&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=\\&quot;M256 8C119 8 8 119 8 256s111 248 248 248 248-111 248-248S393 8 256 8z\\&quot;&gt;&lt;\\\/path&gt;&lt;\\\/svg&gt;&quot;},&quot;minimize_box&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;minimized_on&quot;:&quot;tablet&quot;,&quot;hierarchical_view&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;min_height&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"table-of-contents.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__header\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-toc__header-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\u00cdndice\t\t\t<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--expand\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__000570b\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Open table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-down\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M207.029 381.476L12.686 187.132c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941l22.667-22.667c9.357-9.357 24.522-9.375 33.901-.04L224 284.505l154.745-154.021c9.379-9.335 24.544-9.317 33.901.04l22.667 22.667c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941L240.971 381.476c-9.373 9.372-24.569 9.372-33.942 0z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--collapse\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__000570b\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Close table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M240.971 130.524l194.343 194.343c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941l-22.667 22.667c-9.357 9.357-24.522 9.375-33.901.04L224 227.495 69.255 381.516c-9.379 9.335-24.544 9.317-33.901-.04l-22.667-22.667c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941L207.03 130.525c9.372-9.373 24.568-9.373 33.941-.001z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-toc__000570b\" class=\"elementor-toc__body\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__spinner-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<svg class=\"elementor-toc__spinner eicon-animation-spin e-font-icon-svg e-eicon-loading\" aria-hidden=\"true\" viewBox=\"0 0 1000 1000\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M500 975V858C696 858 858 696 858 500S696 142 500 142 142 304 142 500H25C25 237 238 25 500 25S975 237 975 500 763 975 500 975Z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b7de5d7 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"b7de5d7\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7b33f15 iwg-hero-image elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"7b33f15\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"683\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_buddhismus_buddha-gautama-683x1024.webp\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-3273\" alt=\"Buddha Gautama - G\u00f6tter aus der Buddhismus-Tradition, historisch-illustrativ\" srcset=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_buddhismus_buddha-gautama-683x1024.webp 683w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_buddhismus_buddha-gautama-200x300.webp 200w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_buddhismus_buddha-gautama-768x1152.webp 768w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_buddhismus_buddha-gautama.webp 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 683px) 100vw, 683px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2fa2568 e-con-boxed e-flex e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"2fa2568\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-46c540b e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"46c540b\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-29a8204 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"29a8204\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Figura hist\u00f3rica e data\u00e7\u00e3o<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-36e800d elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"36e800d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Durante muito tempo, a chamada &#8220;cronologia longa&#8221;, com as datas de refer\u00eancia 563 a 483 antes da nossa era, foi considerada o padr\u00e3o.<\/p><p>Heinz Bechert repondereou criticamente as fontes a partir dos anos 1980, em v\u00e1rios volumes (&#8220;Die Datierung des historischen Buddha&#8221;, G\u00f6ttingen 1991 bis 1997), refor\u00e7ando os ind\u00edcios de uma &#8220;cronologia curta&#8221; com datas de vida em torno de 480 a 400 antes da nossa era.<\/p><p>A investiga\u00e7\u00e3o internacional tende, desde ent\u00e3o, para uma data de morte entre 410 e 380 antes da nossa era. Hans Wolfgang Schumann (&#8220;Der historische Buddha&#8221;, K\u00f6ln 1982) havia ainda defendido anteriormente as datas mais longas.<\/p><p>Este debate n\u00e3o est\u00e1 encerrado, mas demonstrou metodologicamente que a data\u00e7\u00e3o depende da cronologia dos reis Maurya, em particular de Ashoka, sendo, portanto, relativa e n\u00e3o absolutamente segura.<\/p>\n<p>Como n\u00facleo biogr\u00e1fico aceite considera-se: Siddhartha nasceu no territ\u00f3rio tribal dos Shakya, em Lumbini, na margem sul do Himalaia; o seu pai, Suddhodana, era um aristocrata ou chefe tribal eleito, sem t\u00edtulo r\u00e9gio heredit\u00e1rio no sentido posterior. Lumbini situa-se no atual Nepal, perto da fronteira indiana.<\/p><p>A identifica\u00e7\u00e3o do local remonta \u00e0 coluna de Ashoka de Lumbini, erguida no s\u00e9culo III antes da nossa era, que designa nominalmente o local de nascimento. Klaus-Josef Notz (&#8220;Buddhismus&#8221;, Stuttgart 2002) avalia esta<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Um texto gravado ou esculpido num suporte s\u00f3lido.\" tabindex=\"0\">inscri\u00e7\u00e3o<\/span>como o mais antigo testemunho arqueol\u00f3gico que associa o Buddha a um lugar concreto.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-15053dd e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"15053dd\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f7ece3a elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"f7ece3a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">A biografia no C\u00e2none Pali<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c25552a elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"c25552a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A fonte can\u00f3nica mais detalhada sobre o fim da vida \u00e9 o Mahaparinibbana-Sutta (Digha Nikaya 16). Descreve os \u00faltimos meses, a viagem de Rajagriha a Kushinagara e a morte entre duas \u00e1rvores Sala. O texto \u00e9 considerado composicionalmente complexo: combina uma cr\u00f3nica de peregrina\u00e7\u00e3o com discursos doutrinais e uma descri\u00e7\u00e3o dos ritos funer\u00e1rios.<\/p><p>Outros textos, como o Ariyapariyesana-Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 26), narram na primeira pessoa a busca do conhecimento, a sa\u00edda da casa dos pais e a rutura com os mestres asc\u00e9ticos Alara Kalama e Uddaka Ramaputta.<\/p><p>O Lalitavistara, um texto em s\u00e2nscrito dos s\u00e9culos III a IV da nossa era, desenvolve estes relatos numa hagiografia ornamentada com prod\u00edgios c\u00f3smicos.<\/p>\n<p>As c\u00e9lebres &#8220;quatro sa\u00eddas&#8221;, em que o jovem Siddhartha v\u00ea um anci\u00e3o, um doente, um morto e um asceta errante, n\u00e3o se encontram atestadas nesta forma unit\u00e1ria no estrato mais antigo do c\u00e2none.<\/p><p>Condensam um<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Um elemento tem\u00e1tico recorrente na arte ou na narrativa.\" tabindex=\"0\">motivo<\/span>teol\u00f3gico que interpreta o confronto com a imperman\u00eancia como desencadeador da partida. Edward Conze (&#8220;Der Buddhismus&#8221;, Stuttgart 1953) chamou a aten\u00e7\u00e3o para o fato de se tratar de uma composi\u00e7\u00e3o narrativa que retoma padr\u00f5es narrativos mais antigos da literatura asc\u00e9tica pr\u00e9-budista.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5e46ce5 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"5e46ce5\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-604c3f5 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"604c3f5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Doutrina e as Quatro Nobres Verdades<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2d6a375 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"2d6a375\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>O serm\u00e3o de Sarnath, o Dhammacakkappavattana-Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya 56.11), formula as quatro &#8220;Nobres Verdades&#8221;: a exist\u00eancia \u00e9 marcada pelo sofrimento (dukkha), o sofrimento tem uma causa no desejo (tanha), a cessa\u00e7\u00e3o do sofrimento \u00e9 poss\u00edvel (nirodha) e existe um caminho para ela, o \u00f3ctuplo caminho (atthangika-magga).<\/p><p>Os oito ramos s\u00e3o: vis\u00e3o correta, inten\u00e7\u00e3o correta, palavra correta, a\u00e7\u00e3o correta, meio de vida correto, esfor\u00e7o correto, aten\u00e7\u00e3o plena correta e concentra\u00e7\u00e3o correta. Esta estrutura\u00e7\u00e3o est\u00e1 atestada m\u00faltiplas vezes no<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A cole\u00e7\u00e3o de escrituras sagradas de uma religi\u00e3o reconhecida como vinculativa.\" tabindex=\"0\">c\u00e2none<\/span>e \u00e9 considerada o n\u00facleo doutrinal sistem\u00e1tico mais antigo que pode ser plausivelmente atribu\u00eddo ao Buddha hist\u00f3rico.<\/p>\n<p>Volker Zotz (&#8220;Geschichte der buddhistischen Philosophie&#8221;, Reinbek 1996) insere as Quatro Verdades na diagn\u00f3stica m\u00e9dica da \u00cdndia antiga: sintoma, causa, curabilidade, terapia. Este fundo m\u00e9dico est\u00e1 explicitado m\u00faltiplas vezes no Pali-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A cole\u00e7\u00e3o de escrituras sagradas de uma religi\u00e3o reconhecida como vinculativa.\" tabindex=\"0\">c\u00e2none<\/span>, nomeadamente quando o Buddha se designa a si pr\u00f3prio como &#8220;m\u00e9dico&#8221;. A doutrina n\u00e3o tem, portanto, uma orienta\u00e7\u00e3o especulativa, mas visa a liberta\u00e7\u00e3o pr\u00e1tica.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ace9927 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"ace9927\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4b024d2 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"4b024d2\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Sangha e atividade de ensino<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-960cc77 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"960cc77\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Ap\u00f3s a ilumina\u00e7\u00e3o em Bodh Gaya, iniciou-se uma atividade docente de 45 anos, concentrada nas regi\u00f5es de Magadha, Kosala e Videha. As comunidades mon\u00e1sticas mais antigas surgiram em Sarnath, Rajagriha (Veluvana-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Um conjunto de \u00e1rvores sagradas que servia de local de culto.\" tabindex=\"0\">Bosque<\/span>) e Shravasti (Jetavana-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Um conjunto de \u00e1rvores sagradas que servia de local de culto.\" tabindex=\"0\">Bosque<\/span>). Este \u00faltimo ter\u00e1 sido doado \u00e0 ordem pelo mercador Anathapindika.<\/p><p>O Sangha dividia-se em quatro grupos: monges (bhikkhu), monjas (bhikkhuni) e fi\u00e9is leigos de ambos os sexos. A admiss\u00e3o de mulheres, mediada por Ananda e pela m\u00e3e adotiva Mahapajapati, est\u00e1 registrada no Cullavagga (Vinaya-Pitaka). A investiga\u00e7\u00e3o v\u00ea nisto um passo invulgar para a hist\u00f3ria religiosa da \u00cdndia antiga, cuja fiabilidade hist\u00f3rica \u00e9, no entanto, contestada.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8264d71 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"8264d71\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f189522 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"f189522\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">S\u00edmbolos, iconografia e rel\u00edquias<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c452567 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"c452567\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A arte budista mais antiga, como os relevos de Sanchi e Bharhut (s\u00e9culos II a I antes da nossa era), n\u00e3o conhece qualquer representa\u00e7\u00e3o antropom\u00f3rfica do Buddha.<\/p><p>O mestre \u00e9 simbolizado por tronos vazios, pegadas, a roda da doutrina (dharmacakra), a \u00e1rvore Bodhi e o stupa. S\u00f3 a escola de Gandhara, entre os s\u00e9culos I e III da nossa era, influenciada pela escultura helen\u00edstica, desenvolve a iconografia de figura humana.<\/p><p>As trinta e duas &#8220;marcas principais&#8221; (mahapurusalaksana) dos textos posteriores: entre as quais a ushnisha (protuber\u00e2ncia craniana), a urna (mecha de cabelo na testa), os l\u00f3bulos das orelhas alongados e as impress\u00f5es de l\u00f3tus nas plantas dos p\u00e9s: formalizam a representa\u00e7\u00e3o. Os gestos das m\u00e3os (mudra) codificam situa\u00e7\u00f5es de ensino: o toque da terra (bhumisparsha), o gesto de aus\u00eancia de medo (abhaya), o da doutrina (dharmacakra) e o da medita\u00e7\u00e3o (dhyana).<\/p>\n<p>Ap\u00f3s o Parinirvana, as cinzas e os restos \u00f3sseos foram distribu\u00eddos por oito reinos e depositados em stupas. Ashoka teria reaberto esses stupas no s\u00e9culo III antes da nossa era e distribu\u00eddo as rel\u00edquias por 84.000 novas constru\u00e7\u00f5es.<\/p><p>Este n\u00famero \u00e9 simb\u00f3lico, mas os dados arqueol\u00f3gicos apontam para uma consider\u00e1vel expans\u00e3o do culto do stupa sob os Maurya.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c038d14 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"c038d14\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a4b57e5 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"a4b57e5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Efeito e reformula\u00e7\u00e3o religiosa<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c398bad elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"c398bad\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>No Budismo Mahayana, que surge a partir do s\u00e9culo I antes da nossa era, junta-se ao Buddha hist\u00f3rico uma doutrina dos &#8220;tr\u00eas corpos&#8221; (trikaya): o corpo de transforma\u00e7\u00e3o (nirmanakaya), no qual Siddhartha se manifestou como pessoa hist\u00f3rica, o corpo de frui\u00e7\u00e3o (sambhogakaya) e o corpo do<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Nas religi\u00f5es indianas, a doutrina e a justa ordem do agir.\" tabindex=\"0\">Dharma<\/span>(dharmakaya) como verdade intemporal.<\/p><p>No Saddharmapundarika-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"No Hindu\u00edsmo e no Budismo, um texto doutrinal em forma concisa.\" tabindex=\"0\">Sutra<\/span>(L\u00f3tus-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"No Hindu\u00edsmo e no Budismo, um texto doutrinal em forma concisa.\" tabindex=\"0\">Sutra<\/span>, ca. s\u00e9culo I da nossa era), Shakyamuni \u00e9 apenas uma forma de manifesta\u00e7\u00e3o de um ser iluminado desde tempos imemoriais. Donald Lopez (&#8220;The Story of Buddhism&#8221;, San Francisco 2001) acompanha esta desloca\u00e7\u00e3o como uma generaliza\u00e7\u00e3o da hist\u00f3ria das religi\u00f5es, em que a pessoa singular se torna fun\u00e7\u00e3o c\u00f3smica.<\/p>\n<p>Robert Buswell e Donald Lopez (&#8220;Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism&#8221;, Princeton 2014) mostram que a investiga\u00e7\u00e3o hist\u00f3rico-cr\u00edtica sobre o Buddha e a venera\u00e7\u00e3o religiosa do Buddha no Budismo asi\u00e1tico moderno se desenvolvem em grande medida em paralelo.<\/p><p>Os debates acad\u00e9micos ocidentais sobre data\u00e7\u00e3o, como os de Bechert, encontraram at\u00e9 agora pouca resson\u00e2ncia nos mosteiros tradicionais do Sri Lanka, da Tail\u00e2ndia ou do Tibete. Do ponto de vista cient\u00edfico, esta tens\u00e3o \u00e9 ela pr\u00f3pria objeto de investiga\u00e7\u00e3o, suscitando a quest\u00e3o de como a realidade biogr\u00e1fica e o significado religioso se relacionam na tradi\u00e7\u00e3o.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7fea99b e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"7fea99b\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0e63532 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"0e63532\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Recep\u00e7\u00e3o na Europa<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b3bde59 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b3bde59\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>O conhecimento europeu do Buddha come\u00e7a com tradu\u00e7\u00f5es do Pali e do s\u00e2nscrito no s\u00e9culo XIX. Eug\u00e8ne Burnouf lan\u00e7ou os alicerces com &#8220;Introduction \u00e0 l&#8217;histoire du buddhisme indien&#8221; (Paris 1844). Hermann Oldenberg conjugou filologia e hist\u00f3ria das religi\u00f5es em &#8220;Buddha. Sein Leben, seine Lehre, seine Gemeinde&#8221; (Berlin 1881).<\/p><p>Schopenhauer recebeu motivos budistas em segunda m\u00e3o, influenciando assim muito al\u00e9m da indologia acad\u00e9mica. No s\u00e9culo XX, o monge theravadino Nyanatiloka (Anton Gueth) marcou o ensino do Buddha em l\u00edngua alem\u00e3 com tradu\u00e7\u00f5es sistem\u00e1ticas do Pali. Esta linha prolonga-se at\u00e9 ao debate acad\u00e9mico e meditativo atual.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ffc6968 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"ffc6968\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-73c461c elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"73c461c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Fontes e bibliografia complementar<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8545b4c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"8545b4c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div data-nosnippet=\"true\"><p>Fontes prim\u00e1rias: Mahaparinibbana-Sutta (Digha Nikaya 16); Ariyapariyesana-Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 26); Dhammacakkappavattana-Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya 56.11); Vinaya-Pitaka, Cullavagga; Lalitavistara; Saddharmapundarika-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"No Hindu\u00edsmo e no Budismo, um texto doutrinal em forma concisa.\" tabindex=\"0\">Sutra<\/span>(L\u00f3tus-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"No Hindu\u00edsmo e no Budismo, um texto doutrinal em forma concisa.\" tabindex=\"0\">Sutra<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Literatura secund\u00e1ria:<\/p><ul><li>Heinz Bechert (ed.), &#8220;Die Datierung des historischen Buddha&#8221;, 3 volumes, G\u00f6ttingen 1991 bis 1997.<\/li><li>Hans Wolfgang Schumann, &#8220;Der historische Buddha&#8221;, K\u00f6ln 1982.<\/li><li>Klaus-Josef Notz, &#8220;Buddhismus&#8221;, Stuttgart 2002.<\/li><li>Volker Zotz, &#8220;Geschichte der buddhistischen Philosophie&#8221;, Reinbek 1996.<\/li><li>Edward Conze, &#8220;Der Buddhismus&#8221;, Stuttgart 1953.<\/li><li>Donald Lopez, &#8220;The Story of Buddhism&#8221;, San Francisco 2001.<\/li><li>Robert Buswell e Donald Lopez, &#8220;Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism&#8221;, Princeton 2014.<\/li><li>Hermann Oldenberg, &#8220;Buddha.<\/li><\/ul><p>Sein Leben, seine Lehre, seine Gemeinde&#8221;, Berlin 1881.<\/p><\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e4c2b84 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"e4c2b84\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ff18585 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"ff18585\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Comunidade mon\u00e1stica primitiva e forma\u00e7\u00e3o de escolas<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5f3a5d2 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"5f3a5d2\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A atividade docente do Buddha conduziu, ainda em vida, \u00e0 forma\u00e7\u00e3o de uma comunidade relativamente heterog\u00e9nea. J\u00e1 na primeira gera\u00e7\u00e3o ap\u00f3s o Parinirvana se esbo\u00e7aram diferentes pr\u00e1ticas de interpreta\u00e7\u00e3o, que no chamado segundo conc\u00edlio de Vaishali (cerca de 100 anos ap\u00f3s o Parinirvana) conduziram a uma primeira cis\u00e3o.<\/p><p>Os Theravadins (&#8220;Mestres dos Anci\u00e3os&#8221;) e os Mahasanghikas (&#8220;Grande Comunidade&#8221;) separaram-se; os pontos de disputa diziam respeito a dez quest\u00f5es disciplinares, entre as quais o uso do dinheiro e a interpreta\u00e7\u00e3o das regras do Vinaya.<\/p><p>Dos Mahasanghikas surgiram, ao longo de v\u00e1rios s\u00e9culos, as formas precursoras do Mahayana, enquanto a linha Theravada se consolidou sobretudo no Sri Lanka. Heinz Bechert exp\u00f4s, em v\u00e1rios ensaios, que esta precoce divis\u00e3o de escolas toca metodologicamente o problema de data\u00e7\u00e3o mais importante da hist\u00f3ria budista primitiva, pois fornece um ponto de refer\u00eancia relativo para as datas de vida do Buddha.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-acb2de5 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"acb2de5\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8bc2480 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"8bc2480\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">As colunas de Ashoka como marcadores hist\u00f3ricos<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4773f11 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"4773f11\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>As inscri\u00e7\u00f5es do imperador Maurya Ashoka (governou cerca de 268 a 232 antes da nossa era) s\u00e3o os mais antigos testemunhos hist\u00f3ricos incontestados da hist\u00f3ria budista.<\/p><p>Mencionam o Buddha pelo nome, descrevem peregrina\u00e7\u00f5es aos locais do seu nascimento e ensino, e documentam o patroc\u00ednio imperial do Sangha. A coluna de Lumbini (inscri\u00e7\u00e3o de Rummindei,<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Um texto gravado ou esculpido num suporte s\u00f3lido.\" tabindex=\"0\">inscri\u00e7\u00e3o<\/span>, 250 antes da nossa era) marca o local de nascimento.<\/p><p>Uma outra<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Um texto gravado ou esculpido num suporte s\u00f3lido.\" tabindex=\"0\">inscri\u00e7\u00e3o<\/span>em Nigali Sagar refere-se a um Buddha anterior chamado Konagamana, o que mostra que Ashoka j\u00e1 tinha interesse numa s\u00e9rie de Buddhas, na qual Shakyamuni est\u00e1 inserido.<\/p><p>Estas inscri\u00e7\u00f5es s\u00e3o metodologicamente centrais, porque atestam de forma segura a exist\u00eancia de uma comunidade budista organizada e de uma geografia do Buddha no s\u00e9culo III antes da nossa era. Com isso fica tamb\u00e9m assegurada a exist\u00eancia da pessoa do Buddha antes desta data, embora sem que a sua cronologia de vida exacta fique assim determinada.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c00e2b0 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"c00e2b0\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-66ed5a9 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"66ed5a9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">O ensinamento de Buda sobre os deuses<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-55b6ffc elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"55b6ffc\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Uma quest\u00e3o frequentemente subestimada na investiga\u00e7\u00e3o moderna diz respeito \u00e0 posi\u00e7\u00e3o do Buddha face aos deuses (deva) da tradi\u00e7\u00e3o v\u00e9dica. O Pali-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A cole\u00e7\u00e3o de escrituras sagradas de uma religi\u00e3o reconhecida como vinculativa.\" tabindex=\"0\">c\u00e2none<\/span>n\u00e3o apresenta os deuses como n\u00e3o existentes; pelo contr\u00e1rio, s\u00e3o integrados num cosmos hierarquicamente estruturado, no qual tamb\u00e9m eles est\u00e3o sujeitos ao renascimento e, portanto, ao sofrimento.<\/p><p>Indra (em Pali, Sakka), Brahma, as divindades menores e os seres dos mundos superiores aparecem m\u00faltiplas vezes no<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A cole\u00e7\u00e3o de escrituras sagradas de uma religi\u00e3o reconhecida como vinculativa.\" tabindex=\"0\">c\u00e2none<\/span>como interlocutores do Buddha.<\/p><p>N\u00e3o lhe s\u00e3o superiores, mas reconhecem-no como seu mestre. Esta rela\u00e7\u00e3o \u00e9 fenomenologicamente peculiar do ponto de vista da religi\u00e3o: o Budismo n\u00e3o \u00e9 nem ateu nem te\u00edsta no sentido habitual. Klaus-Josef Notz descreveu esta constela\u00e7\u00e3o em &#8220;Buddhismus&#8221; como &#8220;religi\u00e3o ate\u00edsta com mundo de deuses&#8221;. Os deuses t\u00eam fun\u00e7\u00f5es, mas n\u00e3o s\u00e3o refer\u00eancias \u00faltimas.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a3b1717 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"a3b1717\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1e64bc6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"1e64bc6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Vinaya e ordem mon\u00e1stica<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5dbfa07 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"5dbfa07\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>As regras disciplinares (Vinaya), que regulam a vida cotidiana dos monges e das monjas, s\u00e3o atribu\u00eddas ao pr\u00f3prio Buddha. Na realidade, o Vinaya-Pitaka \u00e9 uma cole\u00e7\u00e3o que cresceu por camadas, cujo n\u00facleo mais antigo remonta ao per\u00edodo de ensino do Buddha. As 227 regras do Patimokkha para monges (311 para monjas) regulam o vestu\u00e1rio, a alimenta\u00e7\u00e3o, as condi\u00e7\u00f5es de habita\u00e7\u00e3o, a abstin\u00eancia sexual e a rela\u00e7\u00e3o com os leigos.<\/p><p>S\u00e3o lidas em voz alta duas vezes por m\u00eas na assembleia Uposatha, o que assegura uma cont\u00ednua tomada de consci\u00eancia sobre a disciplina. Esta pr\u00e1tica est\u00e1 continuamente atestada desde o s\u00e9culo III antes da nossa era, constituindo assim uma das mais antigas formas de disciplina religiosa do mundo.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-99198a5 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"99198a5\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d3c9f48 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"d3c9f48\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Os primeiros conc\u00edlios e a codifica\u00e7\u00e3o do ensinamento<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3f2749d elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"3f2749d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Imediatamente ap\u00f3s o Parinirvana, segundo a<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A transmiss\u00e3o de conhecimentos e narrativas ao longo de gera\u00e7\u00f5es.\" tabindex=\"0\">tradi\u00e7\u00e3o<\/span>, realizou-se em Rajagriha o primeiro conc\u00edlio budista, convocado por Mahakassapa. Ananda recitou os discursos doutrinais (Sutta-Pitaka) e Upali as regras disciplinares (Vinaya-Pitaka).<\/p><p>Esta tradi\u00e7\u00e3o est\u00e1 registrada no Cullavagga. \u00c9tienne Lamotte (&#8220;Histoire du bouddhisme indien&#8221;, Louvain 1958) avalia a tradi\u00e7\u00e3o dos conc\u00edlios como uma narrativa de legitima\u00e7\u00e3o a posteriori, que cont\u00e9m, no entanto, um n\u00facleo historicamente plaus\u00edvel: a preserva\u00e7\u00e3o do ensinamento transmitido oralmente por meio de recita\u00e7\u00f5es padronizadas.<\/p><p>O segundo conc\u00edlio em Vaishali (cerca de 380 antes da nossa era) tratou dez pontos disciplinares controvertidos. O terceiro conc\u00edlio em Pataliputra, sob Ashoka (cerca de 250 antes da nossa era), \u00e9 considerado na tradi\u00e7\u00e3o Theravada como o encerramento da canoniza\u00e7\u00e3o do Tipitaka.<\/p><p>A linha Mahasanghika n\u00e3o conhece esta terceira assembleia nesta forma, o que j\u00e1 atesta a historiografia espec\u00edfica de cada escola na fase inicial.<\/p>\n<p>A fixa\u00e7\u00e3o escrita definitiva do c\u00e2none Pali ocorreu apenas no Sri Lanka, sob o rei Vattagamani Abhaya, no s\u00e9culo I antes da nossa era. No quarto conc\u00edlio em Aluvihara, os textos foram escritos pela primeira vez em folhas de palmeira.<\/p><p>Esta cesura \u00e9 historicamente significativa do ponto de vista da hist\u00f3ria das religi\u00f5es: marca a transi\u00e7\u00e3o de uma cultura puramente memorativa para uma cultura escrita. At\u00e9 ent\u00e3o, grupos especializados de monges (bhanaka) tinham transmitido de mem\u00f3ria grupos individuais de textos.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-adc2a29 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"adc2a29\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-48c6626 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"48c6626\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">O Buda em compara\u00e7\u00e3o com mestres contempor\u00e2neos<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-26118f8 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"26118f8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>O Buddha viveu e atuou numa fase de pluralismo religioso, descrita no Pali-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A cole\u00e7\u00e3o de escrituras sagradas de uma religi\u00e3o reconhecida como vinculativa.\" tabindex=\"0\">c\u00e2none<\/span>como o tempo dos &#8220;seis outros mestres&#8221;. Entre eles contavam-se Mahavira, o fundador do Jainismo, Makkhali Gosala (Ajivika), Purana Kassapa, Pakudha Kaccayana, Ajita Kesakambali e Sanjaya Belatthiputta. O Samannaphala-Sutta (Digha Nikaya 2) apresenta uma descri\u00e7\u00e3o comparativa dos seus ensinamentos.<\/p><p>A investiga\u00e7\u00e3o analisou estas fontes para reconstituir o perfil intelectual da Idade Axial da \u00cdndia. Karl Jaspers integrou esta constela\u00e7\u00e3o no seu &#8220;Vom Ursprung und Ziel der Geschichte&#8221; (1949) na Idade Axial global, durante a qual surgiram simultaneamente novos movimentos filos\u00f3ficos na China, na \u00cdndia, no Ir\u00e3o e na Gr\u00e9cia.<\/p>\n<p>A proximidade com Mahavira \u00e9 particularmente not\u00e1vel. Ambos ensinaram na mesma regi\u00e3o, ambos recrutaram seguidores da aristocracia Kshatriya, ambos criticaram o culto sacrificial v\u00e9dico. Padmanabh Jaini (&#8220;The Jaina Path of Purification&#8221;, Berkeley 1979) analisou sistematicamente as semelhan\u00e7as e as diferen\u00e7as.<\/p><p>Enquanto os jainas defendiam uma ascese estrita e uma doutrina do karma de car\u00e1ter quase material, o Buddha formulou um &#8220;caminho do meio&#8221; entre o prazer dos sentidos e a mortifica\u00e7\u00e3o, substituindo a doutrina substancial da alma pelo princ\u00edpio anatta.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-331b0f1 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"331b0f1\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-81e52c7 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"81e52c7\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Os doze motivos principais da hagiografia de Buda<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-189913c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"189913c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A hagiografia posterior condensou a vida do Buddha em doze eventos normativos principais, codificados como &#8220;doze atos&#8221; (mdzad pa bcu gnyis) especialmente na tradi\u00e7\u00e3o tibetana.<\/p><p>Abrangem a descida do c\u00e9u Tushita, a concep\u00e7\u00e3o, o nascimento, as habilidades da juventude, o casamento e a riqueza, a partida, a ascese, a vit\u00f3ria sobre Mara, a obten\u00e7\u00e3o da ilumina\u00e7\u00e3o, a atividade docente e o Parinirvana.<\/p><p>Esta padroniza\u00e7\u00e3o ocorreu no Mahayana e no Vajrayana apenas depois do s\u00e9culo VII da nossa era. O Lalitavistara fornece o modelo mais detalhado. Steven Collins (&#8220;Selfless Persons&#8221;, Cambridge 1982) demonstrou que esta codifica\u00e7\u00e3o cumpre uma fun\u00e7\u00e3o religioso-sociol\u00f3gica: cria uma grelha de visualiza\u00e7\u00e3o meditativa que pode ser reproduzida na<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A ordem estabelecida do culto de uma comunidade religiosa.\" tabindex=\"0\">liturgia<\/span>e no ensino mon\u00e1stico.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-62ba234 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"62ba234\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4c61e41 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"4c61e41\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">O Buda como mestre dos deuses e dos homens<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-293d475 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"293d475\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>No Pali-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A cole\u00e7\u00e3o de escrituras sagradas de uma religi\u00e3o reconhecida como vinculativa.\" tabindex=\"0\">c\u00e2none<\/span>, o Buddha ostenta o t\u00edtulo &#8220;satthadevamanussanam&#8221;, &#8220;mestre dos deuses e dos homens&#8221;. Este t\u00edtulo reflete a posi\u00e7\u00e3o cosmol\u00f3gica do Iluminado no modelo indiano dos seis reinos (deuses, semideuses, humanos, animais, esp\u00edritos famintos, seres do inferno). Tamb\u00e9m Indra (Sakka), Brahma Sahampati e divindades menores s\u00e3o considerados disc\u00edpulos do Buddha.<\/p><p>Esta hierarquiza\u00e7\u00e3o n\u00e3o serve para polemizar contra o c\u00e9u divino v\u00e9dico, mas para o integrar no esquema budista. Lambert Schmithausen (&#8220;Buddhism and Nature&#8221;, Tokyo 1991) remete para a estrat\u00e9gia de &#8220;inclusivismo&#8221;, t\u00edpica da concorr\u00eancia religiosa na \u00cdndia antiga.<\/p><p>Tamb\u00e9m Mara, o antagonista tentador sob a \u00e1rvore Bodhi, n\u00e3o \u00e9 lido como um ser ontologicamente mau, mas como uma personifica\u00e7\u00e3o ps\u00edquico-c\u00f3smica do enredamento no devir.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a752db3 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"a752db3\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-342dca2 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"342dca2\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">A morte de Buda e a quest\u00e3o de Cunda<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4c68b86 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"4c68b86\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>O Mahaparinibbana-Sutta relata que o Buddha, antes da morte, ingeriu um alimento oferecido pelo ferreiro Cunda, designado como &#8220;sukara-maddava&#8221;.<\/p><p>A tradu\u00e7\u00e3o \u00e9 contestada: &#8220;carne de porco tenra&#8221; (Rhys Davids), &#8220;cogumelos que os porcos desenterram&#8221; (Walpola Rahula), &#8220;rebentos jovens de bambu&#8221;. A investiga\u00e7\u00e3o concorda que o Buddha sofreu uma grave crise abdominal ap\u00f3s esta refei\u00e7\u00e3o, provavelmente uma intoxica\u00e7\u00e3o alimentar bacteriana ou um epis\u00f3dio de enfarte mesent\u00e9rico.<\/p><p>O Buddha defendeu publicamente Cunda, afirmando que a refei\u00e7\u00e3o oferecida que precede uma ilumina\u00e7\u00e3o e a refei\u00e7\u00e3o antes do Parinirvana s\u00e3o dois m\u00e9ritos supremos.<\/p><p>Este gesto mereceu ampla aten\u00e7\u00e3o na investiga\u00e7\u00e3o, pois desloca simbolicamente a responsabilidade pela morte do mestre e alivia a quest\u00e3o da culpa. Hellmuth Hecker analisou, em v\u00e1rios ensaios sobre Cunda, o aspecto m\u00e9dico e o fenomenol\u00f3gico-religioso.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-9283984 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"9283984\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-220b27b elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"220b27b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Perguntas frequentes<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2a83b72 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"2a83b72\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>Quando viveu o Buddha hist\u00f3rico?<\/strong>A investiga\u00e7\u00e3o mais antiga datava-o entre 563 e 483 antes da nossa era.<\/p><p>Os estudos de Heinz Bechert demonstraram que a &#8220;cronologia curta&#8221;, com datas de vida em torno de 480 a 400 antes da nossa era, se adequa melhor ao estado das fontes. A investiga\u00e7\u00e3o internacional tende hoje para uma data de morte entre 410 e 380 antes da nossa era.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Onde nasceu o Buddha?<\/strong>Em Lumbini, no atual sul do Nepal. O local est\u00e1 identificado nominalmente por uma coluna de Ashoka do s\u00e9culo III antes da nossa era.<\/p>\n<p>Qual \u00e9 a diferen\u00e7a entre o Buddha hist\u00f3rico e o Buddha no Mahayana? No Budismo Theravada, Shakyamuni \u00e9 o mestre hist\u00f3rico desta era mundial. No Mahayana, \u00e9 uma das muitas manifesta\u00e7\u00f5es de um princ\u00edpio do Buddha entendido de forma c\u00f3smica. Ambas as concep\u00e7\u00f5es existem em paralelo e s\u00e3o discutidas separadamente na investiga\u00e7\u00e3o cient\u00edfica.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Que l\u00edngua falava o Buddha?<\/strong>Com grande probabilidade, uma l\u00edngua popular indo-ariana antiga, provavelmente pr\u00f3xima do atual Magadhi. O Pali, em que o mais antigo<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A cole\u00e7\u00e3o de escrituras sagradas de uma religi\u00e3o reconhecida como vinculativa.\" tabindex=\"0\">c\u00e2none<\/span>foi transmitido, \u00e9 uma forma literariamente depurada, n\u00e3o id\u00eantica ao Magadhi, mas aparentada com ele.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Buda Gautama, fundador do Budismo Siddhartha Gautama \u00e9, enquanto figura hist\u00f3rica, o buda fundador do Budismo. Do ponto de vista da ci\u00eancia das religi\u00f5es, importa distinguir entre a figura docente biograficamente identific\u00e1vel e a posterior reconfigura\u00e7\u00e3o m\u00edtico-religiosa. Embora seja poss\u00edvel situar pontos de refer\u00eancia da sua atividade no nordeste da \u00cdndia do s\u00e9culo V antes [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":3273,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_yoast_wpseo_focuskw":"buddha gautama","_yoast_wpseo_title":"Buddha Gautama: Fundador do Budismo | iWell Guard","_yoast_wpseo_metadesc":"Siddhartha Gautama, o Buddha hist\u00f3rico: fundador do Budismo, as Quatro Nobres Verdades e o \u00d3ctuplo Caminho. 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