{"id":194956,"date":"2026-09-07T09:38:08","date_gmt":"2026-09-07T09:38:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/?page_id=194956"},"modified":"2026-09-07T09:41:15","modified_gmt":"2026-09-07T09:41:15","slug":"baal-hammon-alto-deus-cartaxines","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/baal-hammon-alto-deus-cartaxines\/","title":{"rendered":"Baal-Hammon \u2013 Alto deus cartaxin\u00e9s"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"194956\" class=\"elementor elementor-194956 elementor-2628 elementor-bc-flex-widget\" data-elementor-post-type=\"page\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-hero e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-hero\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-hl e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-hl\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-htxt e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-htxt\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-h1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-h1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Baal-Hammon, alto deus p\u00fanico-cartaxin\u00e9s e Saturno Africano<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-lead elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-lead\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon (p\u00fanico <em>b\u02bfl \u1e25mn<\/em>) \u00e9 o deus masculino supremo do Cartago p\u00fanico e das s\u00faas colonias. Aparece regularmente xunto a <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/tanit-deusa-suprema-cartago\/\">Tanit<\/a> e \u00e9 o receptor das ofrendas votivas do Tofet. No per\u00edodo romano foi identificado con Saturno.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-pillc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-pillc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-pills elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-pills\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"iwg-pill-row\"><span class=\"iwg-klasse-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Deus da tradici\u00f3n fenicia.\">Deus<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/fenicios-cartago-baal-tanit\/\" class=\"iwg-kultur-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Mitolox\u00eda da tradici\u00f3n fenicia.\">Fenicia<\/a><span class=\"iwg-tradition-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Divinidade suprema.\">Divinidade suprema<\/span><\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-tocc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-tocc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-toc elementor-toc--minimized-on-tablet elementor-widget elementor-widget-table-of-contents\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;headings_by_tags&quot;:[&quot;h2&quot;,&quot;h3&quot;],&quot;minimize_box&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;marker_view&quot;:&quot;bullets&quot;,&quot;no_headings_message&quot;:&quot;Non se atoparon t\\u00edtulos nesta p\\u00e1xina.&quot;,&quot;exclude_headings_by_selector&quot;:[],&quot;icon&quot;:{&quot;value&quot;:&quot;fas fa-circle&quot;,&quot;library&quot;:&quot;fa-solid&quot;,&quot;rendered_tag&quot;:&quot;&lt;svg class=\\&quot;e-font-icon-svg e-fas-circle\\&quot; viewBox=\\&quot;0 0 512 512\\&quot; xmlns=\\&quot;http:\\\/\\\/www.w3.org\\\/2000\\\/svg\\&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=\\&quot;M256 8C119 8 8 119 8 256s111 248 248 248 248-111 248-248S393 8 256 8z\\&quot;&gt;&lt;\\\/path&gt;&lt;\\\/svg&gt;&quot;},&quot;minimized_on&quot;:&quot;tablet&quot;,&quot;hierarchical_view&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;min_height&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"table-of-contents.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__header\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-toc__header-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\u00cdndice\t\t\t<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--expand\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Open table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-down\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M207.029 381.476L12.686 187.132c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941l22.667-22.667c9.357-9.357 24.522-9.375 33.901-.04L224 284.505l154.745-154.021c9.379-9.335 24.544-9.317 33.901.04l22.667 22.667c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941L240.971 381.476c-9.373 9.372-24.569 9.372-33.942 0z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--collapse\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Close table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M240.971 130.524l194.343 194.343c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941l-22.667 22.667c-9.357 9.357-24.522 9.375-33.901.04L224 227.495 69.255 381.516c-9.379 9.335-24.544 9.317-33.901-.04l-22.667-22.667c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941L207.03 130.525c9.372-9.373 24.568-9.373 33.941-.001z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-toc__iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" class=\"elementor-toc__body\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__spinner-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<svg class=\"elementor-toc__spinner eicon-animation-spin e-font-icon-svg e-eicon-loading\" aria-hidden=\"true\" viewBox=\"0 0 1000 1000\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M500 975V858C696 858 858 696 858 500S696 142 500 142 142 304 142 500H25C25 237 238 25 500 25S975 237 975 500 763 975 500 975Z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-hr e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-hr\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-heroimg iwg-hero-image elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-heroimg\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"683\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-683x1024.webp\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-196792\" alt=\"Baal Hammon - Deuses da tradici\u00f3n fenicia, ilustraci\u00f3n hist\u00f3rica\" srcset=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-683x1024.webp 683w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-200x300.webp 200w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-768x1152.webp 768w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon.webp 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 683px) 100vw, 683px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Achega e perfil breve<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon \u00e9 unha das divindades m\u00e1is importantes do mundo p\u00fanico do Mediterr\u00e1neo occidental. Sabatino Moscati demostrou en <em>Il mondo dei Fenici<\/em> (1966) que Baal-Hammon, a\u00ednda estando documentado na metr\u00f3pole fenicia, ocupaba al\u00ed un lugar secundario; en Cartago acadou o cume do pante\u00f3n e comparte esa posici\u00f3n con <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/tanit-deusa-suprema-cartago\/\">Tanit<\/a>. Dentro da <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/fenicios-cartago-baal-tanit\/\">tradici\u00f3n fenicia<\/a> \u00e9 o prototipo do alto deus p\u00fanico.<\/p><p>Maria Eugenia Aubet documentou en <em>The Phoenicians and the West<\/em> (2001) a s\u00faa difusi\u00f3n mediterr\u00e1nea; hai santuarios de Baal-Hammon documentados en Cartago, Motya, Tharros, Sulcis, Hadrumetum e moitos outros lugares. Na \u00e9poca imperial romana o seu culto contin\u00faa baixo a forma de Saturno Africano, alcanzando unha persistencia notable na provincia num\u00eddico-mauritana at\u00e9 o s\u00e9culo IV d.C.<\/p><p>Desde o punto de vista da historia das relixi\u00f3ns, Baal-Hammon representa o tipo do alto deus con aspectos ct\u00f3nicos e solares. Marcel Le Glay demostrou en <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (1966) que a identificaci\u00f3n co Saturno romano se basea na dobre natureza de Baal-Hammon: \u00e9 tanto deus do gran e da colleita (aspecto saturnino) como deus paterno ct\u00f3nico.<\/p><p>As estelas do Tofet e as numerosas inscrici\u00f3ns rexistran o seu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto das pr\u00e1cticas de veneraci\u00f3n relixiosa dirixidas a unha divindade ou figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culto<\/span> como un achado central da historia relixiosa.<\/p><p>A persistencia de Baal-Hammon na \u00e9poca imperial romana como Saturno Africano \u00e9 un dos exemplos m\u00e1is notables de continuidade na historia das relixi\u00f3ns tras a ca\u00edda pol\u00edtica do Estado p\u00fanico. Conserv\u00e1ronse m\u00e1is de dous mil estelas de Saturno das provincias norteafricanas, desde o s\u00e9culo I at\u00e9 o IV d.C.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Nome e etimolox\u00eda<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>O nome <em>b\u02bfl \u1e25mn<\/em> componse de <em>b\u02bfl<\/em> &#8216;se\u00f1or&#8217; e <em>\u1e25mn<\/em>, cuxa etimolox\u00eda \u00e9 obxecto de controversia. Unha interpretaci\u00f3n relaciona <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> coa ra\u00edz <em>\u1e25mm<\/em> &#8216;estar quente&#8217; e ve en Baal-Hammon o &#8216;se\u00f1or da calor&#8217;, probablemente de aspecto solar.<\/p><p>Outra interpretaci\u00f3n considera <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> como top\u00f3nimo &#8216;Hammon&#8217; (posiblemente un lugar en Fenicia) e Baal-Hammon como &#8216;se\u00f1or de Hammon&#8217;. Unha terceira posibilidade relaciona <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> con obxectos de culto de incenso (&#8216;altar de incenso&#8217;).<\/p><p>Charles Krahmalkov reuniu en <em>A Phoenician-Punic Grammar<\/em> (2001) as variantes epigr\u00e1ficas; nas inscrici\u00f3ns aparece como <em>b\u02bfl \u1e25mn<\/em> ou simplemente <em>b\u02bfl<\/em>. A transcrici\u00f3n grega \u00e9 \u0392\u03ac\u03b1\u03bb-\u1f08\u03bc\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd (Baal-Ammon), e na \u00e9poca helen\u00edstica ocasionalmente identificouse tam\u00e9n con trazos do exipcio Am\u00f3n. A identificaci\u00f3n romana con Saturno \u00e9 a m\u00e1is duradeira e marca a historia relixiosa africano-romana.<\/p><p>No material hebreo, Hammon aparece como top\u00f3nimo en Galilea; non est\u00e1 claro se existe unha conexi\u00f3n hist\u00f3rica directa. En inscrici\u00f3ns aramaicas de Palmira aparece un deus <em>\u02bfolam<\/em> con funci\u00f3ns semellantes \u00e1s de Baal-Hammon; tam\u00e9n aqu\u00ed a relaci\u00f3n exacta \u00e9 obxecto de debate. Desde a historia das relixi\u00f3ns, Baal-Hammon \u00e9 un desenvolvemento especificamente occidental.<\/p><p>Outra hip\u00f3tese etimol\u00f3xica relaciona <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> co aramaico <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> &#8216;compadecerse&#8217;, o que ter\u00eda unha connotaci\u00f3n teol\u00f3xica profunda; por\u00e9n, non est\u00e1 confirmada desde o punto de vista da ling\u00fc\u00edstica hist\u00f3rica.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Descrici\u00f3n e iconograf\u00eda<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon aparece na iconograf\u00eda p\u00fanica normalmente como un anci\u00e1n barbudo entronizado, con coroa de cornos de touro, longa t\u00fanica pregada e un cetro. Esta tradici\u00f3n iconogr\u00e1fica est\u00e1 amplamente documentada nas estelas do Tofet e dist\u00edngueo de <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/baal-hadad-deus-meteorologico-fenicio\/\">Baal-Hadad<\/a>, que aparece como deus xuvenil da tormenta cun machado alzado. O perfil senil de Baal-Hammon relaci\u00f3nao teoloxicamente co El ugar\u00edtico e con Saturno.<\/p><p>O seu animal sagrado \u00e9 o carneiro ou o macho cabr\u00edo; nos rituais de sacrificio p\u00fanicos o carneiro era o animal preferido para a ofrenda. Nalgunhas estelas aparece flanqueado por esfinxes ou grifos.<\/p><p>En Cartago ergu\u00edase no templo da cidade unha estatua de bronce colosal de Baal-Hammon; mencionada nas fontes en relaci\u00f3n cos <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Ofrenda a unha divindade para expresar agradecemento, petici\u00f3n ou veneraci\u00f3n.\" tabindex=\"0\">sacrificios<\/span> do Tofet, ter\u00eda tido mecanismos que fac\u00edan caer os animais sacrificados ou os nenos a un lume situado debaixo. A cr\u00edtica das fontes sobre este punto \u00e9 controvertida e hoxe aval\u00edase con m\u00e1is cautela.<\/p><p>No per\u00edodo helen\u00edstico-romano, a iconograf\u00eda de Baal-Hammon f\u00fandese cada vez m\u00e1is coa tradici\u00f3n de Saturno; as estelas tardorromanas de Saturno do norte de \u00c1frica (s\u00e9culos III e IV d.C.) mostran o deus como un anci\u00e1n barbudo con fouce, seguindo exactamente o modelo de Saturno. Esta iconograf\u00eda de Saturno Africano \u00e9 o tema principal de Marcel Le Glay e tr\u00e1tase extensamente na s\u00faa monograf\u00eda.<\/p><p>Unha fonte arqueol\u00f3xica impresionante son as numerosas estatu\u00ed\u00f1as de bronce do Tofet, que mostran a Baal-Hammon entronizado coa man alzada, xesto de bendici\u00f3n. Estas estatu\u00ed\u00f1as coloc\u00e1ronse en parte no propio Tofet como ofrendas votivas e en parte en vivendas particulares.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Relatos mitol\u00f3xicos<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Non se conservaron mitos propios de Baal-Hammon; como no caso de <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/tanit-deusa-suprema-cartago\/\">Tanit<\/a>, tr\u00e1tase primordialmente dunha figura c\u00faltico-ritual. Os relatos da <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"\u00c9poca da cultura grega e romana, aproximadamente do 800 a. C. ao 600 d. C.\" tabindex=\"0\">Antig\u00fcidade<\/span> (Diodoro, Polibio, Plutarco, Tertuliano) mencionan os sacrificios infant\u00eds no tofet como o seu principal acto cultual.<\/p><p>Diodoro (20.14) relata polo mi\u00fado un gran sacrificio infantil no ano 310 a. C., cando Cartago foi asediada por Ag\u00e1tocles de Siracusa; en situaci\u00f3n de emerxencia sacrific\u00e1ronse 200 nenos de familias nobres para acalmar a ira do deus.<\/p><p>A historicidade destes relatos \u00e9 obxecto de discusi\u00f3n controvertida desde hai xeraci\u00f3ns; trat\u00e1base de fontes pol\u00e9micas grego-romanas que deben examinarse con esp\u00edrito cr\u00edtico. Os achados arqueol\u00f3xicos do tofet confirman, con todo, que se enterraron al\u00ed, en cantidade considerable, cad\u00e1veres de beb\u00e9s e nenos pequenos; se sempre foron <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Ofrenda a unha divindade para expresar gratitude, petici\u00f3n ou veneraci\u00f3n.\" tabindex=\"0\">v\u00edtimas de sacrificio<\/span> ou tam\u00e9n nenos falecidos por causas naturais \u00e9 o obxecto da chamada controversia do tofet.<\/p><p>Agust\u00edn de Hipona polemiza en <em>De civitate Dei<\/em> 7.19 contra os cultos de Saturno Africano e describe os sacrificios infant\u00eds como &#8216;crudelis daemonum cultus&#8217;. Esta pol\u00e9mica da <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"\u00c9poca de transici\u00f3n entre a Antig\u00fcidade e a Idade Media, aproximadamente do s\u00e9culo III ao VII.\" tabindex=\"0\">Antig\u00fcidade tard\u00eda<\/span> forma parte da construci\u00f3n do Cartago cristi\u00e1n e debe lerse historicamente con cautela, pero reflicte a persistente asociaci\u00f3n de Baal-Hammon cos t\u00f3picos do sacrificio infantil na percepci\u00f3n antiga. A valoraci\u00f3n cient\u00edfica desta pr\u00e1ctica segue sendo obxecto de controversia.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Culto e veneraci\u00f3n<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>O principal lugar de culto de Baal-Hammon era o tofet de Cartago; ademais hab\u00eda tofets en Motya, Tharros, Sulcis, Hadrumetum, Cirta, Lambafundi e numerosos outros lugares. En cada un destes santuarios, Baal-Hammon era o principal destinatario das ofrendas votivas, moitas veces xunto con <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/tanit-deusa-suprema-cartago\/\">Tanit<\/a>. As inscrici\u00f3ns votivas seguen unha f\u00f3rmula est\u00e1ndar: &#8216;Ao se\u00f1or Baal-Hammon, o que N.N. prometeu porque el o escoitou&#8217;.<\/p><p>Ademais exist\u00edan <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Unha construci\u00f3n destinada \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha ou varias divindades.\" tabindex=\"0\">templos<\/span> urbanos de Baal-Hammon, por exemplo en Thinissut e na propia Cartago (<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Unha construci\u00f3n destinada \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha ou varias divindades.\" tabindex=\"0\">templo<\/span> na colina de Byrsa). Sabatino Moscati documentou a arquitectura templaria p\u00fanica en varias publicaci\u00f3ns.<\/p><p>Os <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Unha construci\u00f3n destinada \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha ou varias divindades.\" tabindex=\"0\">templos<\/span> seguen un esquema tripartito: patio, sala principal, santuario interior. No interior atop\u00e1base a <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Representaci\u00f3n figurativa dunha divindade venerada no templo ou santuario.\" tabindex=\"0\">imaxe de culto<\/span> ou unha &#8216;mazzeba&#8217; (columna sagrada), esta \u00faltima t\u00edpica da ausencia de imaxes fenicia para a divindade suprema.<\/p><p>Na \u00e9poca imperial romana, Baal-Hammon seguiu sendo venerado como Saturnus Africanus; o seu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Unha construci\u00f3n destinada \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha ou varias divindades.\" tabindex=\"0\">templo<\/span> en Cartago foi renomeado e <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Entregado ao sagrado mediante un acto relixioso e as\u00ed apartado do coti\u00e1n.\" tabindex=\"0\">consagrado<\/span> de novo.<\/p><p>O n\u00famero de estelas de Saturno en Norte de \u00c1frica supera o de calquera outra divindade romana na rexi\u00f3n; Baal-Hammon-Saturno foi ata o s\u00e9culo IV d.C. a divindade m\u00e1is importante das provincias africanas. A cristianizaci\u00f3n e a invasi\u00f3n v\u00e1ndala puxeron fin ao seu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto de acci\u00f3ns de veneraci\u00f3n relixiosa dedicadas a unha divindade ou figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culto<\/span>.<\/p><p>Unha importante fonte numism\u00e1tica son os tetradracmas cartagineses dos s\u00e9culos IV e III a.C., que mostran a coroa de cornos de touro de Baal-Hammon como f\u00f3rmula protectora no anverso. As moedas foron acu\u00f1adas en gran n\u00famero para pagar o soldo dos ex\u00e9rcitos cartagineses e difundiron o programa iconogr\u00e1fico de Baal-Hammon ata Espa\u00f1a e Sicilia.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Pr\u00e1ctica protectora e elementos apotropaicos<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon era o deus protector da cidade, da familia e das colleitas. Nas inscrici\u00f3ns p\u00fanicas aparece como destinatario de votos <em>n\u0113der<\/em> en situaci\u00f3ns de necesidade: antes de viaxes, antes de batallas, en enfermidades, en nacementos. A frecuencia da s\u00faa <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O acto de dirixirse a unha divindade ou poder mediante s\u00faplica ou invocaci\u00f3n.\" tabindex=\"0\">invocaci\u00f3n<\/span> nas ofrendas votivas privadas amosa a intensa relixiosidade privada da poboaci\u00f3n p\u00fanica.<\/p><p>Nas entradas das casas e nos espazos habitados os seus s\u00edmbolos empreg\u00e1banse de xeito <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Que afasta o mal: relativo a signos e obxectos destinados a manter afastadas influencias prexudiciais.\" tabindex=\"0\">apotropaico<\/span>: a coroa de cornos de touro, a fouci\u00f1a e o <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un signo que representa unha idea ou significado.\" tabindex=\"0\">s\u00edmbolo<\/span> do &#8216;caduceo&#8217;, que no mundo p\u00fanico est\u00e1 regularmente asociado con Baal-Hammon. Atop\u00e1ronse estatu\u00ed\u00f1as de bronce dun deus barbudo entronizado con coroa de cornos de touro en numerosos asentamentos p\u00fanicos.<\/p><p data-nosnippet=\"true\">Desde unha perspectiva cient\u00edfica, a funci\u00f3n protectora de Baal-Hammon est\u00e1 fortemente vinculada \u00e1 orde do Estado, pero tam\u00e9n ten un arraigamento persoal e familiar. A pr\u00e1ctica do tofet debe entenderse como unha forma particular de relixiosidade en tempos de crise, sen que hoxe deba interpretarse de xeito positivo desde o punto de vista cient\u00edfico. O iWell Guard rexistra Baal-Hammon como figura hist\u00f3rico-relixiosa sen relaci\u00f3n con promesas de curaci\u00f3n actuais.<\/p><p>A estreita relaci\u00f3n de Baal-Hammon coa guerra p\u00fanica est\u00e1 ben documentada; o xuramento de An\u00edbal ante o <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Lugar elevado ou mesa para ofrendas e actos relixiosos.\" tabindex=\"0\">altar<\/span> de Baal-Hammon aos nove anos de idade, de considerar Roma inimiga eterna, \u00e9 unha das an\u00e9cdotas antigas m\u00e1is c\u00e9lebres e forma parte da tradici\u00f3n dos xuramentos de guerra p\u00fanicos.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Paralelismos noutras culturas<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon est\u00e1 historicamente relacionado co El ugar\u00edtico (antigo deus pai), co Anu mesopot\u00e1mico, co Saturno romano e co Cronos grego. A identificaci\u00f3n con Saturno \u00e9 a m\u00e1is duradeira; Marcel Le Glay demostrou en <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (1966) que esta sincrese marcou de forma fundamental o <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto de actos de veneraci\u00f3n relixiosa dedicados a unha divindade ou figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culto<\/span> ao Saturno africano da \u00e9poca imperial.<\/p><p>Con Cronos, Baal-Hammon comparte o perfil do vello deus pai asociado a sacrificios infant\u00eds; o <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un relato transmitido sobre deuses, orixes e a orde do mundo.\" tabindex=\"0\">mito<\/span> grego de Cronos incl\u00fae a devoraci\u00f3n dos propios fillos, o que na percepci\u00f3n helen\u00edstica se vinculou aos sacrificios do tofet cartaxin\u00e9s. Plutarco (<em>De superstitione<\/em>) fai expl\u00edcita esta conexi\u00f3n.<\/p><p>Con <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/kumarbi-pai-dos-deuses-hurrita\/\">Kumarbi<\/a> da <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/hetita-anatolica-tarhunna-deuses-proteccion\/\">tradici\u00f3n hitita<\/a>, Baal-Hammon compartilla o tipo do deus pai derrocado ou desprazado. Desde o punto de vista da historia das relixi\u00f3ns, pertence \u00e1 familia internacional dos antigos deuses pai mediterr\u00e1neos, cuxa funci\u00f3n foi en parte desprazada pola xeraci\u00f3n m\u00e1is nova dos deuses da tormenta. Na provincia romana de Africa Proconsularis, esta tradici\u00f3n antigo-mediterr\u00e1nea mant\u00edvose viva durante un tempo excepcionalmente longo.<\/p><p>A conexi\u00f3n entre Baal-Hammon e o Am\u00f3n-Ra exipcio activouse durante o per\u00edodo helen\u00edstico; o oasis de Siwa co seu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un lugar ou instituci\u00f3n onde se consulta unha resposta divina.\" tabindex=\"0\">or\u00e1culo<\/span> de Am\u00f3n era ben accesible desde Cartago, e algunhas fontes narran peregrinaci\u00f3ns cartaxinesas at\u00e9 al\u00ed. A importancia hist\u00f3rica desta sincrese \u00e9 discutida, pero notable.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Recepci\u00f3n actual e investigaci\u00f3n<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A investigaci\u00f3n sobre Baal-Hammon at\u00f3pase hoxe nun nivel elevado. <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (1966) de Marcel Le Glay \u00e9 a referencia est\u00e1ndar cl\u00e1sica; Sabatino Moscati, Maria Eugenia Aubet, H\u00e9l\u00e8ne B\u00e9nichou-Safar e Lawrence Stager achegaron contribuci\u00f3ns importantes \u00e1 investigaci\u00f3n sobre o tofet. <em>Phoenician Aniconism<\/em> (2015) de Brian Doak trata a tradici\u00f3n sen imaxes de Baal-Hammon. Os estudos de Josephine Quinn sobre a identidade p\u00fanica constit\u00faen achegas importantes dos \u00faltimos anos.<\/p><p>Na recepci\u00f3n popular, Baal-Hammon co\u00f1\u00e9cese sobre todo pola controversia do tofet e pola pol\u00e9mica cristi\u00e1 <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"\u00c9poca da cultura grega e romana, aproximadamente do 800 a. C. ao 600 d. C.\" tabindex=\"0\">antiga<\/span>; a imaxe resultante est\u00e1 distorsionada e apenas se axusta ao rigor cient\u00edfico. Representaci\u00f3ns m\u00e1is matizadas desde o punto de vista cient\u00edfico at\u00f3panse nas obras citadas.<\/p><p>Desde o punto de vista cient\u00edfico, Baal-Hammon consid\u00e9rase hoxe un obxecto de estudo central para a relixi\u00f3n p\u00fanica, para a tradici\u00f3n do Saturno africano e para a historia relixiosa mediterr\u00e1nea. Os focos de investigaci\u00f3n actuais c\u00e9ntranse na an\u00e1lise bioarqueol\u00f3xica do tofet, na tradici\u00f3n das estelas do Saturno africano e na cuesti\u00f3n do compo\u00f1ente berber. O iWell Guard rex\u00edstrao como membro hist\u00f3rico do <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto de deuses dunha relixi\u00f3n ou cultura.\" tabindex=\"0\">pante\u00f3n<\/span>.<\/p><p>Investigaci\u00f3ns recentes de Josephine Quinn (<em>In Search of the Phoenicians<\/em>, 2018) reabriron o debate sobre a identidade p\u00fanica e a s\u00faa autodefinici\u00f3n relixiosa, cuestionando o papel de Baal-Hammon como &#8216;deus dos fenicios&#8217;.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Bibliograf\u00eda e fontes<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A seguinte selecci\u00f3n re\u00fane as obras de referencia m\u00e1is importantes sobre a investigaci\u00f3n de Baal-Hammon. Incl\u00fae informes arqueol\u00f3xicos, s\u00edntese da historia das relixi\u00f3ns e edici\u00f3ns epigr\u00e1ficas. A monograf\u00eda de Marcel Le Glay \u00e9 a referencia cl\u00e1sica; Moscati e Aubet ofrecen o marco p\u00fanico; Doak, a perspectiva iconol\u00f3xica. O estudo m\u00e1is recente de Quinn insire a investigaci\u00f3n no debate cr\u00edtico sobre a identidade.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp2dce0c7c e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cp2dce0c7c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp22efe76a elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cp22efe76a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">O tofet de Cartago e os achados de estelas<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp207c89a8 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cp207c89a8\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp223f9336 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp223f9336\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A principal testemu\u00f1a do culto a Baal Hammon non \u00e9 un texto, sen\u00f3n un recinto. Tr\u00e1tase do chamado tofet de Cartago, un santuario situado nos l\u00edmites da antiga cidade, no actual barrio de Salammb\u00f4. Foi escavado a partir da d\u00e9cada de 1920. Fundamental foi a campa\u00f1a dirixida pola arque\u00f3loga estadounidense e o seu equipo nos anos 1970, co\u00f1ecida como &#8220;Punic Project&#8221;.<\/p><p>O recinto cont\u00e9n miles de pequenas urnas cos restos calcinados de nenos e de animais novos, sobre as que se erixiron estelas de pedra.<\/p><p>Moitas destas estelas levan inscrici\u00f3ns dedicatorias en escritura p\u00fanica. A f\u00f3rmula habitual menciona primeiro a <em>Baal Hammon<\/em> e \u00e1 deusa <em>Tinnit<\/em> (a menudo denominada &#8220;Tinnit, rostro de Baal&#8221;), e a continuaci\u00f3n o nome do doante e a s\u00faa petici\u00f3n.<\/p><p>Estas inscrici\u00f3ns constit\u00faen a fonte epigr\u00e1fica m\u00e1is densa que existe sobre a relixi\u00f3n p\u00fanica e converten a Baal Hammon na <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un ser venerado como divino dentro dunha relixi\u00f3n.\" tabindex=\"0\">divindade<\/span> cartaxinesa mellor documentada.<\/p><p>A interpretaci\u00f3n do tofet \u00e9 obxecto de controversia desde o s\u00e9culo XIX. Autores <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"\u00c9poca da cultura grega e romana, aproximadamente do 800 a. C. ao 600 d. C.\" tabindex=\"0\">antigos<\/span> gregos e romanos como Diodoro e Plutarco relatan sacrificios infant\u00eds cartaxineses, e parte da investigaci\u00f3n ve no tofet a confirmaci\u00f3n arqueol\u00f3xica destes relatos.<\/p><p>Unha posici\u00f3n contraria, defendida entre outros por Sabatino Moscati e posteriormente por outros investigadores, interpreta o recinto como un cemiterio para nenos pequenos falecidos por causas naturais. Estudos osteol\u00f3xicos recentes dos \u00f3sos calcinados non te\u00f1en resolto definitivamente o debate. Para a descrici\u00f3n de Baal Hammon isto significa que o seu lugar de culto m\u00e1is importante \u00e9, \u00e1 vez, o achado m\u00e1is controvertido da <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Ciencia que estuda as culturas pasadas a trav\u00e9s dos seus restos materiais.\" tabindex=\"0\">arqueolox\u00eda<\/span> p\u00fanica.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp2d8c90e4 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cp2d8c90e4\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp239ab422 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cp239ab422\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">A interpretatio: Saturno, Cronos e a pervivencia na \u00e9poca romana<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp22113ba9 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cp22113ba9\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp234d4277 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp234d4277\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal Hammon non desapareceu coa destruci\u00f3n de Cartago no 146 a. C. Na \u00c1frica romana seguiu vivindo baixo o nome de <em>Saturnus Africanus<\/em>, un dos cultos m\u00e1is amplamente atestados da provincia de \u00c1frica.<\/p><p>Centos de estelas de Saturno da \u00e9poca romana mostran que a poboaci\u00f3n p\u00fanica seguiu venerando a s\u00faa antiga divindade principal baixo nome romano, con trazos iconogr\u00e1ficos propios, por exemplo o deus baixo un veo ou con fouci\u00f1a.<\/p><p>Xa os gregos identificaran a Baal Hammon con <em>Cronos<\/em>, o que xoga un papel importante sobre todo nos relatos sobre sacrificios infant\u00eds, xa que Cronos devoraba os seus propios fillos.<\/p><p>Os romanos escolleron despois a Saturno, o deus latino correspondente a Cronos. Esta <em>interpretatio<\/em> \u00e9 para a investigaci\u00f3n unha ferramenta de dobre f\u00edo: por un lado mostra continuidade, por outro superp\u00f3n \u00e1 figura p\u00fanica concepci\u00f3ns greco-romanas.<\/p><p>A cuesti\u00f3n de quen foi orixinariamente Baal Hammon non se pode responder s\u00f3 coa tard\u00eda equiparaci\u00f3n con Saturno. Disc\u00fatese se o ep\u00edteto <em>Hammon<\/em> remite a un nome de lugar, por exemplo \u00e1 Hamath do norte de Siria ou a un monte, ou \u00e1 palabra sem\u00edtica para &#8220;braseiro&#8221; ou &#8220;altar de incenso&#8221;.<\/p><p>Eric Gubel, Paolo Xella e outros traballaron sobre estas cuesti\u00f3ns sen que se acadase un consenso. O \u00fanico certo \u00e9 que a m\u00e1scara romana de Saturno \u00e9 a capa m\u00e1is recente da figura, non a orixinaria. Sobre a <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un ser venerado como divino dentro dunha relixi\u00f3n.\" tabindex=\"0\">divindade<\/span> sem\u00edtica occidental da mesma ra\u00edz de nome, v\u00e9xase tam\u00e9n <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/yam-deus-fenicio-mar\/\">Yam<\/a> no <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto dos deuses dunha relixi\u00f3n ou cultura.\" tabindex=\"0\">pante\u00f3n<\/span> ugar\u00edtico.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-lit e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-lit\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-lith elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-lith\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Bibliograf\u00eda (selecci\u00f3n)<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-litc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-litc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-litt elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-litt\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div data-nosnippet=\"true\"><ul><li>Marcel Le Glay: <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (Paris 1966)<\/li><li>Sabatino Moscati: <em>Il mondo dei Fenici<\/em> (Milano 1966)<\/li><li>Maria Eugenia Aubet: <em>The Phoenicians and the West<\/em> (Cambridge 2001)<\/li><li>H\u00e9l\u00e8ne B\u00e9nichou-Safar: <em>Le tophet de Salammb\u00f4 \u00e0 Carthage<\/em> (Rom 2004)<\/li><li>Brian Doak: <em>Phoenician Aniconism<\/em> (Atlanta 2015)<\/li><li>Josephine Quinn: <em>In Search of the Phoenicians<\/em> (Princeton 2018)<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgkw2-add-baalhammon e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgkw2-add-baalhammon\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgkw2-add-baalhammon-t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgkw2-add-baalhammon-t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon aparece como deus supremo p\u00fanico-cartaxin\u00e9s, cuxos santuarios tofet en Cartago atestan a s\u00faa posici\u00f3n como divindade protectora principal; na fase romana s\u00e9guese venerando como Saturnus Africanus.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-kwd e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-kwd\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-kwdc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-kwdc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-kwdt elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-kwdt\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><em>Termos clave relacionados: Baal-Hammon Cartago P\u00fanico Saturnus Tofet Sacrificio infantil Africana.<\/em><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-cc e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-cc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" id=\"iwg-cc-baal-hammon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccinner e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-ccinner\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-cch elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-cch\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">iWell Guard e tradici\u00f3ns de protecci\u00f3n<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-cct elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-cct\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div data-nosnippet=\"true\"><p>iWell Guard retoma a tradici\u00f3n hist\u00f3rico-cultural dos obxectos de protecci\u00f3n port\u00e1tiles, na tradici\u00f3n do <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/fenicios-cartago-baal-tanit\/\">fenicio<\/a> e de moitas outras culturas de todo o mundo. 41 capas, ouro real, platino, prata, fabricado en Alema\u00f1a. Dereito de devoluci\u00f3n de 30 d\u00edas.<\/p><\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb iwg-cc-button iwg-cc-cta-2026-05-13 elementor-widget elementor-widget-jet-button\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-ccb\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"jet-button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-jet-button jet-elements\"><div class=\"jet-button__container\"><a class=\"jet-button__instance jet-button__instance--icon-left hover-effect-1\" href=\"\/ueber-iwell-guard\/?utm_source=iwell-guard.com&amp;utm_medium=info-box&amp;utm_campaign=wesen-tradition\"><div class=\"jet-button__plane jet-button__plane-normal\"><\/div><div class=\"jet-button__plane jet-button__plane-hover\"><\/div><div class=\"jet-button__state jet-button__state-normal\"><span class=\"jet-button__label\">M\u00e1is sobre o iWell Guard<\/span><\/div><div class=\"jet-button__state jet-button__state-hover\"><span class=\"jet-button__label\">M\u00e1is sobre o iWell Guard<\/span><\/div><\/a><\/div><\/div><style>.elementor-element.elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb .jet-button__instance{width:320px;height:56px;}.elementor-element.elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb .jet-button__state-normal .jet-button__label{text-align:center;margin:0px 0px 0px 0px;color:#1a1b20;font-family:Montserrat,sans-serif;font-size:13px;font-weight:400;letter-spacing:4px;line-height:1.714em;text-transform:uppercase;}.elementor-element.elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb .jet-button__state-hover .jet-button__label{text-align:center;margin:0px 0px 0px 0px;color:#FECC76;font-family:Montserrat,sans-serif;font-size:13px;font-weight:400;letter-spacing:4px;line-height:1.714em;text-transform:uppercase;}.elementor-element.elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb .jet-button__plane-normal{background-color:#FECC76;border-style:solid;border-color:#C99540;border-width:2px 2px 2px 2px;}.elementor-element.elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb .jet-button__plane-hover{background-color:rgba(0,0,0,0.55);border-style:solid;border-color:#FECC76;border-width:2px 2px 2px 2px;}<\/style>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccd elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-ccd\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div data-nosnippet=\"true\"><p style=\"text-align:center;font-size:13px;opacity:0.7;margin-top:14px\" data-nosnippet=\"true\">As experiencias persoais poden variar. 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Os contidos relixiosos e cient\u00edficos son unha clasificaci\u00f3n hist\u00f3rico-cultural, non unha recomendaci\u00f3n de pr\u00e1ctica espiritual.<\/p><\/footer>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":2848,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"elementor_header_footer","meta":{"_yoast_wpseo_focuskw":"Baal-Hammon alto deus de Cartago","_yoast_wpseo_title":"Baal-Hammon \u2013 Cartago alto deus, Tofet, Saturno","_yoast_wpseo_metadesc":"Baal-Hammon \u00e9 o deus masculino supremo de Cartago, c\u00f3nxuxe de Tanit e receptor das ofrendas do Tofet. 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