{"id":194935,"date":"2026-09-07T09:38:08","date_gmt":"2026-09-07T09:38:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/?page_id=194935"},"modified":"2026-09-07T09:41:15","modified_gmt":"2026-09-07T09:41:15","slug":"voltumna-deus-federal-liga-etrusca","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/voltumna-deus-federal-liga-etrusca\/","title":{"rendered":"Voltumna &#8211; Deus federal da liga etrusca"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"194935\" class=\"elementor elementor-194935 elementor-2607 elementor-bc-flex-widget\" data-elementor-post-type=\"page\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-hero e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-hero\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-hl e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-hl\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-htxt e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-htxt\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-h1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-h1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Voltumna - Deus federal da liga etrusca e divindade das doce cidades<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-lead elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-lead\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Voltumna (en lat\u00edn tam\u00e9n Vertumnus ou Veltha, en etrusco Veltha ou Velthune) \u00e9 o deus federal supremo da liga etrusca, que comprend\u00eda doce cidades. O seu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un lugar sagrado dedicado \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha divindade.\" tabindex=\"0\">santuario<\/span>, o Fanum Voltumnae, atop\u00e1base preto de Volsinii e era o lugar da asemblea anual da liga etrusca. Esta descrici\u00f3n aborda a s\u00faa posici\u00f3n relixioso-pol\u00edtica e cultual no estado etrusco.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-pillc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-pillc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-pills elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-pills\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"iwg-pill-row\"><span class=\"iwg-klasse-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Deus da tradici\u00f3n Etrusca.\">Deus<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/religion-etrusca-haruspex-disciplina\/\" class=\"iwg-kultur-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Mitolox\u00eda da tradici\u00f3n Etrusca.\">Etrusca<\/a><span class=\"iwg-tradition-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Deus federal e estatal.\">Deus federal e estatal<\/span><\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-tocc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-tocc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-toc elementor-toc--minimized-on-tablet elementor-widget elementor-widget-table-of-contents\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-toc\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;headings_by_tags&quot;:[&quot;h2&quot;,&quot;h3&quot;],&quot;minimize_box&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;marker_view&quot;:&quot;bullets&quot;,&quot;no_headings_message&quot;:&quot;Non se atoparon t\\u00edtulos nesta p\\u00e1xina.&quot;,&quot;exclude_headings_by_selector&quot;:[],&quot;icon&quot;:{&quot;value&quot;:&quot;fas fa-circle&quot;,&quot;library&quot;:&quot;fa-solid&quot;,&quot;rendered_tag&quot;:&quot;&lt;svg class=\\&quot;e-font-icon-svg e-fas-circle\\&quot; viewBox=\\&quot;0 0 512 512\\&quot; xmlns=\\&quot;http:\\\/\\\/www.w3.org\\\/2000\\\/svg\\&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=\\&quot;M256 8C119 8 8 119 8 256s111 248 248 248 248-111 248-248S393 8 256 8z\\&quot;&gt;&lt;\\\/path&gt;&lt;\\\/svg&gt;&quot;},&quot;minimized_on&quot;:&quot;tablet&quot;,&quot;hierarchical_view&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;min_height&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"table-of-contents.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__header\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-toc__header-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\u00cdndice\t\t\t<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button 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xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M240.971 130.524l194.343 194.343c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941l-22.667 22.667c-9.357 9.357-24.522 9.375-33.901.04L224 227.495 69.255 381.516c-9.379 9.335-24.544 9.317-33.901-.04l-22.667-22.667c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941L207.03 130.525c9.372-9.373 24.568-9.373 33.941-.001z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-toc__iwgw-voltumna-toc\" class=\"elementor-toc__body\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__spinner-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<svg class=\"elementor-toc__spinner eicon-animation-spin e-font-icon-svg e-eicon-loading\" aria-hidden=\"true\" viewBox=\"0 0 1000 1000\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M500 975V858C696 858 858 696 858 500S696 142 500 142 142 304 142 500H25C25 237 238 25 500 25S975 237 975 500 763 975 500 975Z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-hr e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-hr\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-heroimg iwg-hero-image elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-heroimg\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"683\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_etruskisch_voltumna-1-683x1024.webp\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-196806\" alt=\"Voltumna - Deuses da tradici\u00f3n etrusca, ilustraci\u00f3n hist\u00f3rica\" srcset=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_etruskisch_voltumna-1-683x1024.webp 683w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_etruskisch_voltumna-1-200x300.webp 200w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_etruskisch_voltumna-1-768x1152.webp 768w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_etruskisch_voltumna-1.webp 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 683px) 100vw, 683px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s0 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s0\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s0h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s0h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Posici\u00f3n no pante\u00f3n etrusco<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s0c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s0c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s0t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s0t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Voltumna ocupa un lugar especial no <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto dos deuses dunha relixi\u00f3n ou cultura.\" tabindex=\"0\">pante\u00f3n<\/span> etrusco: non \u00e9 primordialmente un deus superior &#8216;c\u00f3smico&#8217; como <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/tinia-deus-supremo-etruscos\/\">Tinia<\/a>, sen\u00f3n un deus da liga definido en termos pol\u00edtico-relixiosos. O seu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto das pr\u00e1cticas de veneraci\u00f3n relixiosa dedicadas a unha divindade ou figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culto<\/span> estaba vinculado \u00e1 instituci\u00f3n da liga das doce cidades (Dodec\u00e1polis). A cidade de Volsinii era gardi\u00e1 do seu santuario federal.<\/p><p>Massimo Pallottino, Mauro Cristofani e Simonetta Stopponi marcaron con varios traballos a investigaci\u00f3n sobre Voltumna. As escavaci\u00f3ns de Stopponi en Campo della Fiera, preto de Orvieto, fixeron posible a probable localizaci\u00f3n do Fanum Voltumnae.<\/p><p>O deus da liga Voltumna pertence a unha relixi\u00f3n especialmente reveladora para a <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A disciplina que estuda as relixi\u00f3ns de forma comparativa e sen vinculaci\u00f3n de fe.\" tabindex=\"0\">ciencia das relixi\u00f3ns<\/span>, xa que fai de ponte entre o mundo grego-mediterr\u00e1neo e a tradici\u00f3n it\u00e1lico-romana. Massimo Pallottino, Jacques Heurgon, Sybille Haynes, Mauro Cristofani e Giovanni Colonna realizaron achegas esenciais \u00e1 s\u00faa investigaci\u00f3n, cuxos traballos afinaron a imaxe dunha tradici\u00f3n relixiosa propia e independente.<\/p><p>A <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A doutrina cient\u00edfica sobre Deus e sobre a fe dunha relixi\u00f3n.\" tabindex=\"0\">teolox\u00eda<\/span> etrusca co\u00f1ec\u00eda un pante\u00f3n claramente estruturado, con rangos escalonados e competencias repartidas, dentro do cal Voltumna ocupaba unha posici\u00f3n propia, definida en termos pol\u00edtico-relixiosos. Onde os estudos m\u00e1is antigos describ\u00edan este sistema como enigm\u00e1tico ou estra\u00f1o, hoxe vese unha variante propia e independente da relixi\u00f3n mediterr\u00e1nea.<\/p><p>Na historia relixiosa de Italia, os etruscos actuaron como mediadores entre as influencias gregas e a relixi\u00f3n romana en formaci\u00f3n. O feito de que unha <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un ser venerado como divino dentro dunha relixi\u00f3n.\" tabindex=\"0\">divindade<\/span> etrusca como Voltumna sobrevivise no Vertumnus romano \u00e9 un exemplo desta funci\u00f3n mediadora, que espertou un interese especial na ciencia das relixi\u00f3ns.<\/p><p>A investigaci\u00f3n etnorrelixiosa das \u00faltimas d\u00e9cadas considera a relixi\u00f3n etrusca como un sistema pechado en si mesmo e fenomenol\u00f3xicamente independente. A tendencia m\u00e1is antiga a lela como mera derivaci\u00f3n da relixi\u00f3n grega deu paso a unha visi\u00f3n moito m\u00e1is matizada, da que tam\u00e9n se beneficia a comprensi\u00f3n de Voltumna.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s1 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s1\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s1h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s1h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Nome e etimolox\u00eda<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s1c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s1c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s1t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s1t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>O nome etrusco Veltha ou Velthune trad\u00facese ao lat\u00edn como Voltumna ou Vertumnus. A etimolox\u00eda \u00e9 incerta; as propostas van desde &#8216;o que medra&#8217; (relacionado con vertere, &#8216;virar&#8217;) ata &#8216;o cambiante&#8217;. Disc\u00fatese na investigaci\u00f3n unha posible conexi\u00f3n co cambio estacional da vexetaci\u00f3n.<\/p><p>O Vertumnus latino est\u00e1 documentado en Roma como deus do cambio e da vexetaci\u00f3n; disc\u00fatese se \u00e9 id\u00e9ntico a Voltumna ou se se trata dunha <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un ser venerado como divino dentro dunha relixi\u00f3n.\" tabindex=\"0\">divindade<\/span> romana propia e independente. As fontes etruscas son aqu\u00ed m\u00e1is abundantes c\u00e1s romanas.<\/p><p>O etrusco constit\u00fae unha lingua \u00e1 parte; consid\u00e9rase illada ou hipoteticamente adscrita a unha familia tirs\u00e9nica, \u00e1 que tam\u00e9n poder\u00edan pertencer o lemnio e o r\u00e9tico. Traballa na descifrado dos textos desde o s\u00e9culo XIX, e o proceso non est\u00e1 conclu\u00eddo, o cal afecta tam\u00e9n \u00e1 interpretaci\u00f3n de nomes como Veltha ou Velthune.<\/p><p>A colecci\u00f3n epigr\u00e1fica de referencia do corpus ling\u00fc\u00edstico etrusco \u00e9 a Editio Minor de Helmut Rix. Hoxe compl\u00e9tase co Thesaurus Linguae Etruscae e coa base de datos en li\u00f1a ETP, o Etruscan Texts Project, nos que tam\u00e9n se pode consultar o material relativo a Voltumna.<\/p><p>Xa na <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"\u00c9poca da cultura grega e romana, aproximadamente do 800 a.C. ao 600 d.C.\" tabindex=\"0\">Antig\u00fcidade<\/span> se discut\u00eda sobre a orixe dos etruscos: Her\u00f3doto derivounos de Lidia, mentres que Dionisio de Halicarnaso os consideraba un pobo it\u00e1lico aut\u00f3ctono. Historicamente esta cuesti\u00f3n \u00e9 relevante porque dela depende se a relixi\u00f3n etrusca presenta conexi\u00f3ns con cultos de Asia Menor.<\/p><p>A ling\u00fc\u00edstica e a epigraf\u00eda traballan hoxe estreitamente unidas. A edici\u00f3n dixital de textos etruscos, o Etruscan Texts Project (ETP), facilita considerablemente os estudos comparativos, por exemplo sobre te\u00f3nimos como Veltha. Marie-Laurence Haack e Vincent Jolivet fixeron achegas pioneiras neste \u00e1mbito.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s2 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s2\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s2h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s2h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Descrici\u00f3n e iconograf\u00eda<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s2c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s2c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s2t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s2t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A transmisi\u00f3n de co\u00f1ecemento e relatos ao longo de xeraci\u00f3ns.\" tabindex=\"0\">tradici\u00f3n<\/span> iconogr\u00e1fica de Voltumna \u00e9 relativamente escasa. Nalgunhas moedas etruscas aparece unha figura masculina que se identifica con Voltumna. \u00c1s veces leva s\u00edmbolos vexetais (espigas, flores, videiras), o que apoiar\u00eda a s\u00faa funci\u00f3n de vexetaci\u00f3n.<\/p><p>En Roma, Vertumnus est\u00e1 documentado por unha famosa estatua no Vicus Tuscus, que o mostra como divindade cambiante da vexetaci\u00f3n. Esta estatua \u00e9 mencionada por Propercio e outros autores romanos.<\/p><p>Desde o punto de vista da fenomenolox\u00eda relixiosa, a arte figurativa etrusca \u00e9 de grande riqueza e ao mesmo tempo a principal fonte do noso co\u00f1ecemento. Espellos, vasos, pinturas funerarias e bronces conte\u00f1en a maior parte do material, mentres que a <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A transmisi\u00f3n de co\u00f1ecemento e relatos ao longo de xeraci\u00f3ns.\" tabindex=\"0\">tradici\u00f3n<\/span> sobre o propio Voltumna \u00e9 comparativamente escasa. Larissa Bonfante subli\u00f1ou nos seus estudos que esta linguaxe figurativa constit\u00fae unha tradici\u00f3n aut\u00f3noma e non unha mera derivaci\u00f3n.<\/p><p>Unha fonte de primeira orde para a relixi\u00f3n e a escatolox\u00eda dos etruscos son as pinturas funerarias, conservadas principalmente en Tarquinia, Cerveteri e Vulci. As s\u00faas imaxes mostran banquetes, episodios mitol\u00f3xicos, danza e m\u00fasica, e debuxan un m\u00e1is al\u00e1 pensado como continuaci\u00f3n da vida terrestre.<\/p><p>A <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O estudo dos contidos das imaxes e do seu significado.\" tabindex=\"0\">iconograf\u00eda<\/span> etrusca prefire composici\u00f3ns con m\u00faltiples figuras, alusi\u00f3ns narrativas e mensaxes visuais simbolicamente concentradas. A interpretaci\u00f3n desta linguaxe visual \u00e9 tarefa da iconograf\u00eda relixiosa etrusca.<\/p><p>Caracter\u00edstica da arte figurativa etrusca \u00e9 unha densa estratificaci\u00f3n narrativa: xa un \u00fanico espello ou vaso pode conter varias referencias mitol\u00f3xicas simultaneamente. Esta concentraci\u00f3n exixe da investigaci\u00f3n unha an\u00e1lise coidadosa do contexto visual concreto.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s3 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s3\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s3h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s3h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Voltumna e a confederaci\u00f3n de cidades etruscas<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s3c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s3c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s3t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s3t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>As doce cidades principais etruscas -Tarquinia, Caere, Vulci, Veios, Clusium, Volsinii, Cortona, Perugia, Arezzo, Volterra, Populonia e Roselle- formaban unha liga relixioso-pol\u00edtica (Dodec\u00e1pole) que se reun\u00eda anualmente no Fanum Voltumnae. Esta asemblea serv\u00eda tanto para fins relixiosos como pol\u00edticos: <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Ofrenda a unha divindade para expresar agradecemento, petici\u00f3n ou veneraci\u00f3n.\" tabindex=\"0\">ofrendas<\/span>, decisi\u00f3ns da liga, festas com\u00fans.<\/p><p>Tito Livio (4.23, 5.17) informa detalladamente sobre estas reuni\u00f3ns da liga. Serviron de modelo para o posterior Concilium romano e influ\u00edron decisivamente no desenvolvemento das instituci\u00f3ns pol\u00edticas en Italia. Cientificamente, Voltumna constit\u00fae as\u00ed un exemplo dun &#8216;deus pol\u00edtico&#8217;, cuxo <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto das pr\u00e1cticas de veneraci\u00f3n relixiosa dunha divindade ou figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culto<\/span> sustenta unha organizaci\u00f3n estatal.<\/p><p>Non existe para a <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto das narraci\u00f3ns transmitidas sobre os deuses dunha cultura.\" tabindex=\"0\">mitolox\u00eda<\/span> etrusca unha literatura narrativa elaborada como a que co\u00f1ecen as <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A transmisi\u00f3n de co\u00f1ecemento e narraci\u00f3ns ao longo das xeraci\u00f3ns.\" tabindex=\"0\">tradici\u00f3ns<\/span> grega e romana. O que sabemos, tam\u00e9n sobre Voltumna, hai que reconstru\u00edlo a partir de representaci\u00f3ns figurativas, inscrici\u00f3ns e os relatos de autores gregos e romanos. Esta situaci\u00f3n de fontes indirectas esixe especial cautela metodol\u00f3xica.<\/p><p>A relaci\u00f3n entre a <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto das narraci\u00f3ns transmitidas sobre os deuses dunha cultura.\" tabindex=\"0\">mitolox\u00eda<\/span> etrusca e a grega \u00e9 complexa. Os etruscos adoptaron numerosos temas gregos, por exemplo sobre Aquiles, Odiseo e Edipo, pero a mi\u00fado reinterpret\u00e1ronos e estableceron os seus propios acentos. A investigaci\u00f3n estuda con detalle como se desenvolveu este proceso de apropiaci\u00f3n.<\/p><p>\u00c1 <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A doutrina cient\u00edfica sobre Deus e sobre a fe dunha relixi\u00f3n.\" tabindex=\"0\">teolox\u00eda<\/span> etrusca pertence de xeito caracter\u00edstico o consello de deuses, o consensus deorum. Mesmo o deus supremo Tinia non act\u00faa s\u00f3, sen\u00f3n que se consulta cos demais deuses, entre os que se conta tam\u00e9n Voltumna como deus da liga do estado confederado. Desde a fenomenolox\u00eda da relixi\u00f3n, este \u00f3rgano constit\u00fae unha particularidade.<\/p><p>A <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto das narraci\u00f3ns transmitidas sobre os deuses dunha cultura.\" tabindex=\"0\">mitolox\u00eda<\/span> etrusca non deixou unha tradici\u00f3n narrativa pechada; hai que reconstru\u00edla a partir de escenas figurativas, inscrici\u00f3ns e fontes secundarias, o que require unha interpretaci\u00f3n coidadosa. Precisamente nunha figura tan escasamente documentada como Voltumna, resulta un m\u00e9todo fundamental combinar a lenda etrusca, o modelo iconogr\u00e1fico grego e a lectura contextual.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s4 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s4\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s4h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s4h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">O Fanum Voltumnae<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s4c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s4c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s4t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s4t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>O Fanum Voltumnae \u00e9 o santuario federal etrusco m\u00e1is importante. Durante moito tempo, a s\u00faa localizaci\u00f3n exacta foi obxecto de controversia. Simonetta Stopponi escavou desde 2000 no Campo della Fiera, preto de Orvieto, un importante complexo de templos que hoxe se identifica con alta probabilidade como o Fanum Voltumnae.<\/p><p>O complexo comprende varios <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Unha construci\u00f3n destinada \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha ou varias divindades.\" tabindex=\"0\">templos<\/span>, altares, pozos e zonas de reuni\u00f3n. Os achados abranguen desde o s\u00e9culo VII a. C. at\u00e9 a \u00e9poca romana. O <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un lugar sagrado dedicado \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha divindade.\" tabindex=\"0\">santuario<\/span> serviu de forma continuada durante uns 1000 anos como centro relixioso e pol\u00edtico.<\/p><p>A Disciplina Etrusca, o sistema ordenado de adivi\u00f1aci\u00f3n dos etruscos, div\u00eddese na inspecci\u00f3n das entra\u00f1as (haruspicina), a interpretaci\u00f3n dos raios (fulguratio) e a observaci\u00f3n das aves (auspicia). Transmitida polos etruscos aos romanos, seguiu sendo unha pr\u00e1ctica viva at\u00e9 o s\u00e9culo IV d. C. Debemos descrici\u00f3ns detalladas a Cicer\u00f3n e S\u00e9neca.<\/p><p>A Disciplina Etrusca transmit\u00edase en escolas sacerdotais creadas expresamente para isto. Entre os seus textos importantes atop\u00e1banse os Libri Rituales, os Libri Haruspicini e os Libri Fulgurales. Estes textos non se conservaron, pero poden reconstru\u00edrse parcialmente a partir de citas de autores romanos como Cicer\u00f3n, Festo e Macrobio.<\/p><p>O <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto de actos de veneraci\u00f3n relixiosa dedicados a unha divindade ou figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culto<\/span> etrusco estaba fortemente ligado a cada cidade. Cada un dos centros importantes, \u00e9 dicir, Tarquinia, Cere, Vulci, Veio, Clusium, Volsinii, Cortona, Perugia, Arezzo, Volterra, Populonia e Roselle, manti\u00f1a os seus propios cultos principais e particularidades relixiosas. Volsinii ocupaba un papel especial, xa que custodiaba o santuario federal de Voltumna.<\/p><p>Como sistema relixioso-divinatorio pechado, a Disciplina Etrusca \u00e9 unha das pr\u00e1cticas adivinatorias m\u00e1is desenvolvidas do mundo antigo. Os romanos adopt\u00e1rona de forma sistem\u00e1tica, e continuou practic\u00e1ndose at\u00e9 a <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"\u00c9poca da cultura grega e romana, aproximadamente do 800 a. C. ao 600 d. C.\" tabindex=\"0\">Antig\u00fcidade<\/span> tard\u00eda. Esta continuidade \u00e9 notable desde o punto de vista da historia das relixi\u00f3ns.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s5 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s5\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s5h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s5h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Culto e rituais<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s5c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s5c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s5t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s5t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A pr\u00e1ctica cultual no Fanum Voltumnae comprend\u00eda <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Ofrenda a unha divindade para expresar gratitude, petici\u00f3n ou veneraci\u00f3n.\" tabindex=\"0\">sacrificios<\/span> (touros, ovellas, porcos), oraci\u00f3ns, procesi\u00f3ns e festivais. As asembleas anuais eran acontecementos relixiosos e pol\u00edticos importantes para todo o mundo etrusco.<\/p><p>Tras a conquista romana de Volsinii (264 a. C.), o <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un lugar sagrado dedicado \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha divindade.\" tabindex=\"0\">santuario<\/span> de Voltumna non foi abandonado; continuou existindo de forma modificada e integrouse parcialmente no <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto de actos de veneraci\u00f3n relixiosa dedicados a unha divindade ou figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culto<\/span> romano. Esta continuidade documenta a importancia relixiosa de Voltumna incluso m\u00e1is all\u00e1 do fin pol\u00edtico de Etruria.<\/p><p>Os <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Unha construci\u00f3n destinada \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha ou varias divindades.\" tabindex=\"0\">templos<\/span> etruscos presentan particularidades arquitect\u00f3nicas. Caracter\u00edstico \u00e9 o estilo tuscanus, unha orde de columnas propia que Vitruvio describe en De Architectura. As plantas destacan a cella e un amplo vest\u00edbulo frontal, diferenci\u00e1ndose claramente dos modelos gregos.<\/p><p>Moitos <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Unha construci\u00f3n destinada \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha ou varias divindades.\" tabindex=\"0\">templos<\/span> etruscos ti\u00f1an dimensi\u00f3ns monumentais. O <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Unha construci\u00f3n destinada \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha ou varias divindades.\" tabindex=\"0\">templo<\/span> de I\u00fapiter no Capitolio romano, por exemplo, foi erixido por arquitectos e artistas etruscos, principalmente por Vulca de Veio, e consid\u00e9rase un testemu\u00f1o arquitect\u00f3nico da relixiosidade etrusca na Roma primitiva.<\/p><p>Cada ano, a liga das doce cidades etruscas reun\u00edase no Fanum Voltumnae, preto de Volsinii, onde se trat\u00e1ban simultaneamente asuntos relixiosos e pol\u00edticos. Voltumna era a divindade federal desta confederaci\u00f3n de estados e ti\u00f1a unha importancia que \u00eda m\u00e1is al\u00e1 dos cultos de cada cidade en particular.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s6 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s6\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s6h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s6h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Tradici\u00f3ns protectoras e pol\u00edtica<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s6c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s6c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s6t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s6t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Voltumna era o deus protector da liga etrusca no seu conxunto. Quen se dirix\u00eda \u00e1 liga, dirix\u00edase a Voltumna. Esta fusi\u00f3n pol\u00edtico-relixiosa resulta cientificamente interesante: mostra unha relixi\u00f3n que non s\u00f3 organiza a piedade individual, sen\u00f3n tam\u00e9n as relaci\u00f3ns entre estados.<\/p><p>De xeito <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Que afasta o mal: relativo a signos e obxectos destinados a manter afastadas as influencias nocivas.\" tabindex=\"0\">apotropaico<\/span>, invoc\u00e1base a Voltumna en fundaci\u00f3ns de cidades, formaci\u00f3n de alianzas e tratados pol\u00edticos. Esta pr\u00e1ctica continuou en parte nos rituais romanos de fundaci\u00f3n de cidades.<\/p><p>Ao costumeiro protector etrusco pertence unha serie de signos apotropaicos: amuletos f\u00e1licos, imaxes de gorgonas, s\u00edmbolos de ollos, bullae e certas f\u00f3rmulas. A linguaxe visual destes s\u00edmbolos apotropaicos foi desvelada por Larissa Bonfante na s\u00faa obra Etruscan Mirrors, publicada a partir de 1980.<\/p><p>Os s\u00edmbolos protectores estaban moi estendidos na cultura etrusca, entre eles o ollo de Tinia, os amuletos f\u00e1licos e os gorgoneia. Adornaban <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Unha construci\u00f3n destinada \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha ou varias divindades.\" tabindex=\"0\">templos<\/span> e tumbas, as\u00ed como santuarios dom\u00e9sticos e obxectos persoais. Esta pr\u00e1ctica perviv\u00edu tanto na crenza popular romana como na mediterr\u00e1nea.<\/p><p>No contexto etrusco, a acci\u00f3n protectora estaba intimamente ligada \u00e1 Disciplina Etrusca. Antes de calquera empresa importante, xa fose a fundaci\u00f3n dunha cidade, unha campa\u00f1a militar ou a construci\u00f3n dunha casa, consult\u00e1base a vontade divina mediante a <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A interpretaci\u00f3n de signos para co\u00f1ecer o oculto ou o futuro.\" tabindex=\"0\">adivi\u00f1aci\u00f3n<\/span>, o que se aplicaba tam\u00e9n especialmente \u00e1s decisi\u00f3ns pol\u00edticas da liga en torno a Voltumna.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s7 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s7\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s7h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s7h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Paralelismos noutras culturas<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s7c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s7c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s7t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s7t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Voltumna pode compararse con outros deuses federais: Zeus Hellanios (o Zeus panhel\u00e9nico), Diespiter Latiaris (o Iupiter latino) ou Yahwe na s\u00faa funci\u00f3n de deus federal israelita. A conexi\u00f3n entre confederaci\u00f3n pol\u00edtica e <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto das acci\u00f3ns de veneraci\u00f3n relixiosa dedicadas a unha divindade ou figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culto<\/span> relixioso \u00e9 un fen\u00f3meno estendido na historia relixiosa da antig\u00fcidade.<\/p><p>En particular, o paralelo co posterior Iuppiter Latiaris da Liga Latina resulta historicamente esclarecedor. Ambos os cultos federais reun\u00edanse anualmente nun lugar central, ambos ti\u00f1an funci\u00f3ns pol\u00edticas, ambos sobreviviron a cambios pol\u00edticos.<\/p><p>A trav\u00e9s da interpretatio Romana, as divindades etruscas recibiron nomes romanos: Tinia converteuse en Iupiter, Uni en Iuno, Menrva en Minerva, e Voltumna perviv\u00edu no romano Vertumnus. Estas equivalencias adoitaban non ser completas, sen\u00f3n que s\u00f3 destacaban aspectos parciais. A investigaci\u00f3n dos \u00faltimos cincuenta anos ten ido esclarecendo que particularidades etruscas se conservaron nese proceso.<\/p><p>A relixi\u00f3n etrusca presenta m\u00faltiples puntos de contacto con tradici\u00f3ns anat\u00f3licas, fenicias e do pr\u00f3ximo oriente. O intercambio fenicio queda especialmente documentado polas t\u00e1boas de Pyrgi. Esta interconexi\u00f3n mediterr\u00e1nea constit\u00fae desde hai varias d\u00e9cadas un importante campo de investigaci\u00f3n.<\/p><p>Nunha perspectiva de relixi\u00f3n comparada, o <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto das acci\u00f3ns de veneraci\u00f3n relixiosa dedicadas a unha divindade ou figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culto<\/span> etrusco pertence \u00e1 familia relixiosa mediterr\u00e1nea m\u00e1is ampla e mant\u00e9n relaci\u00f3n con Grecia, Fenicia, Exipto, Anatolia e o Lacio. Esta integraci\u00f3n constit\u00fae un importante campo de investigaci\u00f3n.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s8 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s8\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s8h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s8h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Investigaci\u00f3n actual<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s8c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s8c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s8t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s8t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A investigaci\u00f3n sobre Voltumna experimentou un forte impulso desde os anos 2000 grazas \u00e1s escavaci\u00f3ns en Campo della Fiera (Simonetta Stopponi, Universidade de Perugia). Informes anuais de escavaci\u00f3n e varias monograf\u00edas documentan os achados.<\/p><p>Tam\u00e9n os estudos interdisciplinares sobre a estatalidade etrusca (Mauro Cristofani, Adriano Maggiani) incl\u00faen sistematicamente a Voltumna. O seu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto das acci\u00f3ns de veneraci\u00f3n relixiosa dedicadas a unha divindade ou figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culto<\/span> \u00e9 clave para comprender o federalismo etrusco.<\/p><p>A relixi\u00f3n etrusca \u00e9 hoxe obxecto dunha investigaci\u00f3n conectada internacionalmente. Entre os centros m\u00e1is relevantes est\u00e1n as universidades de Florencia, Roma Sapienza, Pisa, Tubinga e Princeton. Cada ano varios congresos internacionais ded\u00edcanse a aspectos concretos do tema.<\/p><p>Os proxectos internacionais sobre a relixi\u00f3n etrusca recorren hoxe a m\u00e9todos dixitais: esc\u00e1neres tridimensionais de templos e tumbas, bases de datos de inscrici\u00f3ns e fontes iconogr\u00e1ficas, as\u00ed como an\u00e1lises SIG da estrutura de asentamento. Estes m\u00e9todos abren novas perspectivas, por exemplo na localizaci\u00f3n de lugares de culto como o Fanum Voltumnae.<\/p><p>A investigaci\u00f3n etrusca actual chega a un p\u00fablico m\u00e1is amplo a trav\u00e9s de exposici\u00f3ns, entre outras no Museo Vaticano, no Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia e no Boston Museum of Fine Arts, as\u00ed como mediante numerosas publicaci\u00f3ns.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s9 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s9\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s9h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s9h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Fontes e estado da investigaci\u00f3n<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s9c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s9c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-s9t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-s9t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>As fontes m\u00e1is importantes para a investigaci\u00f3n sobre Voltumna son os achados arqueol\u00f3xicos de Campo della Fiera, as inscrici\u00f3ns etruscas, as menci\u00f3ns en Livio, as fontes romanas sobre Vertumnus e os achados epigr\u00e1ficos das cidades etruscas.<\/p><p>Unha an\u00e1lise m\u00e1is profunda no conxunto da <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/religion-etrusca-haruspex-disciplina\/\">historia relixiosa etrusca<\/a> mostra como se debe entender a Voltumna dentro do sistema de relaci\u00f3ns con Tinia, Uni, Menrva e os demais Atua, coa particularidade de que el se define primordialmente en termos pol\u00edtico-relixiosos.<\/p><p>As fontes sobre a relixi\u00f3n etrusca son heterox\u00e9neas: testemu\u00f1os epigr\u00e1ficos, recollidos na Editio Minor de Helmut Rix, achados arqueol\u00f3xicos, fontes iconogr\u00e1ficas e literatura secundaria. Esta diversidade require un enfoque interdisciplinar, e a investigaci\u00f3n m\u00e1is recente combina de forma sistem\u00e1tica a filolox\u00eda, a <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A ciencia que estuda as culturas do pasado a partir dos seus achados materiais.\" tabindex=\"0\">arqueolox\u00eda<\/span>, a <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A ciencia que estuda as relixi\u00f3ns de forma comparada e sen vinculaci\u00f3n de fe.\" tabindex=\"0\">ciencia das relixi\u00f3ns<\/span> e a antropolox\u00eda.<\/p><p>Unha cr\u00edtica das fontes rigorosa require co\u00f1ecer tanto os testemu\u00f1os orixinais etruscos como a tradici\u00f3n secundaria greco-romana. Precisamente no caso de Voltumna, cuxa correspondencia romana Vertumnus deixou pegadas m\u00e1is abundantes que algunhas fontes etruscas, esta dobre perspectiva resulta imprescindible.<\/p><p>Quen queira situar a Voltumna con rigor desde a perspectiva da historia das relixi\u00f3ns debe abarcar tanto as fontes epigr\u00e1ficas, arqueol\u00f3xicas e literarias como os procedementos da moderna <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A ciencia que estuda as relixi\u00f3ns de forma comparada e sen vinculaci\u00f3n de fe.\" tabindex=\"0\">ciencia das relixi\u00f3ns<\/span>. Esta an\u00e1lise multifac\u00e9tica consid\u00e9rase o est\u00e1ndar na investigaci\u00f3n actual.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp26cedd68 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cp26cedd68\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp2a98cf47 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cp2a98cf47\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">O Fanum Voltumnae: santuario federal das cidades etruscas<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp2a6b7f9c e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cp2a6b7f9c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp2e7a2c06 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp2e7a2c06\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Voltumna, tam\u00e9n chamado <em>Vertumnus<\/em> polos autores romanos, est\u00e1 intimamente ligado a un lugar de culto determinado, o <em>Fanum Voltumnae<\/em>. O historiador romano Tito Livio relata en varias ocasi\u00f3ns que os representantes das cidades etruscas se reun\u00edan neste <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un lugar sagrado dedicado \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha divindade.\" tabindex=\"0\">santuario<\/span> para deliberar sobre asuntos com\u00fans, decidir sobre a guerra e a paz e celebrar festas relixiosas con xogos.<\/p><p>O <em>Fanum Voltumnae<\/em> era as\u00ed, ao mesmo tempo, centro relixioso e lugar de asemblea pol\u00edtica da liga de cidades etruscas.<\/p><p>A localizaci\u00f3n exacta do santuario permaneceu desco\u00f1ecida durante moito tempo e foi obxecto de varias hip\u00f3teses. Desde principios da d\u00e9cada de 2000, a investigaci\u00f3n c\u00e9ntrase no xacemento de Campo della Fiera, pr\u00f3ximo a Orvieto, a antiga <em>Velzna<\/em> ou Volsinii.<\/p><p>Al\u00ed, as excavaci\u00f3ns dirixidas por Simonetta Stopponi puxeron ao descuberto un amplo recinto sagrado con cimentaci\u00f3ns de templos, altares, ofrendas votivas e unha longa historia de uso. A identificaci\u00f3n con o <em>Fanum Voltumnae<\/em> resulta probable para moitos investigadores, a\u00ednda que, como ocorre con moitos achados etruscos, non est\u00e1 confirmada por unha <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un texto gravado ou cinzado nun soporte fixo.\" tabindex=\"0\">inscrici\u00f3n<\/span> inequ\u00edvoca.<\/p><p>O rexistro de Campo della Fiera mostra que o lugar seguiu en uso m\u00e1is al\u00e1 da \u00e9poca etrusca, tanto en \u00e9poca romana como incluso na Antig\u00fcidade tard\u00eda.<\/p><p>Isto concorda coa observaci\u00f3n de que o <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto de actos relixiosos de veneraci\u00f3n dedicados a unha divindade ou figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culto<\/span> a Voltumna perdurou mesmo despois da conquista romana de Volsinii, e o deus seguiu sendo venerado en forma romana como <em>Vertumnus<\/em>. O santuario federal deixa claro que a relixi\u00f3n etrusca non era s\u00f3 un asunto de cidades individuais, sen\u00f3n que ti\u00f1a tam\u00e9n unha funci\u00f3n supraterritorial e identitaria.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp2d8ceefe e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cp2d8ceefe\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp22e8ff58 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cp22e8ff58\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Voltumna, Vertumnus e a cuesti\u00f3n da natureza do deus<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp246f5f53 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cp246f5f53\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp26b57471 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp26b57471\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Non existe unanimidade na investigaci\u00f3n sobre a natureza de Voltumna, e isto ten que ver coa peculiaridade das fontes.<\/p><p>O erudito romano Varr\u00f3n describe a Voltumna como o deus supremo de Etruria, <em>deus Etruriae princeps<\/em>. Outros testemu\u00f1os suxiren un deus da vexetaci\u00f3n ou da transformaci\u00f3n, hip\u00f3tese apoiada sobre todo pola figura romana de <em>Vertumnus<\/em>, vinculada ao cambio das estaci\u00f3ns e \u00e1 madurez dos froitos.<\/p><p>O poeta Propercio pon a <em>Vertumnus<\/em> a falar en primeira persoa nunha co\u00f1ecida elex\u00eda, na que loa a s\u00faa capacidade de transformaci\u00f3n.<\/p><p>O problema \u00e9 que estes testemu\u00f1os proceden dunha perspectiva romana e foron formulados s\u00e9culos despois do apoxeo do culto etrusco. Se Voltumna foi orixinariamente un deus da vexetaci\u00f3n, un deus pol\u00edtico da liga ou unha <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un ser venerado como divino dentro dunha relixi\u00f3n.\" tabindex=\"0\">divindade<\/span> ampla con varios aspectos, \u00e9 algo que non se pode determinar a partir dos poucos testemu\u00f1os etruscos propios.<\/p><p>Alg\u00fans investigadores relacionan o propio nome cunha ra\u00edz que significa xirar ou transformarse, o que concordar\u00eda co tema da transformaci\u00f3n, a\u00ednda que tampouco esta etimolox\u00eda est\u00e1 confirmada.<\/p><p>Voltumna constit\u00fae as\u00ed un exemplo dunha dificultade fundamental da etruscolox\u00eda: unha <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un ser venerado como divino dentro dunha relixi\u00f3n.\" tabindex=\"0\">divindade<\/span> pode estar ben documentada por autores <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"\u00c9poca da cultura grega e romana, aproximadamente entre o 800 a.C. e o 600 d.C.\" tabindex=\"0\">antigos<\/span> e, a\u00ednda as\u00ed, permanecer imprecisa na s\u00faa natureza orixinal, porque os testemu\u00f1os son tard\u00edos, for\u00e1neos e interesados.<\/p><p>Por iso, as exposici\u00f3ns serias adoitan presentar varias interpretaci\u00f3ns en paralelo, en lugar de decantarse por unha soa. O \u00fanico certo \u00e9 o papel destacado do deus como punto de referencia da liga de cidades etruscas.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-lit e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-lit\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-lith elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-lith\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Bibliograf\u00eda (selecci\u00f3n)<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-litc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-litc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-litt elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-litt\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<ul><li>Simonetta Stopponi: <em>Il Santuario di Voltumna al Campo della Fiera<\/em> (varios volumes)<\/li><li>Mauro Cristofani: <em>Gli Etruschi<\/em> (1984)<\/li><li>Massimo Pallottino: <em>Die Etrusker<\/em> (1942)<\/li><li>Larissa Bonfante: <em>Etruscan Mythology<\/em> (2006)<\/li><li>Adriano Maggiani: contribuci\u00f3ns sobre a relixi\u00f3n etrusca<\/li><li>Livio: <em>Ab Urbe Condita<\/em> (4.23, 5.17)<\/li><\/ul>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgkw-add-voltumna e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgkw-add-voltumna\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgkw-add-voltumna-t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgkw-add-voltumna-t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Voltumna, tam\u00e9n chamado Veltha ou Vertumnus, era o patr\u00f3n <strong>divino<\/strong> das doce cidades da liga etrusca. O seu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un lugar sagrado dedicado \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha divindade.\" tabindex=\"0\">santuario<\/span>, o <em>Fanum Voltumnae<\/em>, preto de Volsinii, serv\u00eda, segundo Livio, como lugar de reuni\u00f3n anual dos representantes da liga, onde se trat\u00e1ban conxuntamente cuesti\u00f3ns relixiosas, pol\u00edticas e xur\u00eddicas.<\/p><p>Como referente divino da liga, Voltumna estaba, as\u00ed, menos ligado ao <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"O conxunto de actos relixiosos de veneraci\u00f3n dedicados a unha divindade ou figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culto<\/span> dom\u00e9stico e m\u00e1is \u00e1 representaci\u00f3n estatal, garantindo o v\u00ednculo ritual entre cidades-estado por outra parte independentes.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgkw2-add-voltumna e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgkw2-add-voltumna\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgkw2-add-voltumna-t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgkw2-add-voltumna-t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>O <em><span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un relato transmitido sobre deuses, orixes e a orde do mundo.\" tabindex=\"0\">mito<\/span><\/em> etrusco cita a Voltumna como deus supremo da liga das doce cidades; no seu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un lugar sagrado dedicado \u00e1 veneraci\u00f3n dunha divindade.\" tabindex=\"0\">santuario<\/span>, o Fanum Voltumnae, preto de Volsinii, reunianse anualmente os representantes da liga etrusca para deliberar e celebrar cultos festivos.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-kwd e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-kwd\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-kwdc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-kwdc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-kwdt elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-kwdt\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><em>Termos clave relacionados: Voltumna Etruscos Fanum Voltumnae Liga Dodec\u00e1pole Volsinii Vertumnus Campo della Fiera.<\/em><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-cc e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-cc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" id=\"iwg-cc-voltumna\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-ccinner e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-ccinner\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-cch elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-cch\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">iWell Guard e tradici\u00f3ns de protecci\u00f3n<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-voltumna-cct elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-voltumna-cct\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div data-nosnippet=\"true\"><p>iWell Guard contin\u00faa a tradici\u00f3n hist\u00f3rico-cultural dos obxectos de protecci\u00f3n port\u00e1tiles, na tradici\u00f3n dos <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/gl\/religion-etrusca-haruspex-disciplina\/\">Etruscos<\/a> e de moitas outras culturas de todo o mundo. 41 capas, ouro real, platino, prata, fabricado en Alema\u00f1a. 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