{"id":4441,"date":"2026-04-27T10:35:44","date_gmt":"2026-04-27T10:35:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/yama\/"},"modified":"2026-06-05T14:26:50","modified_gmt":"2026-06-05T14:26:50","slug":"yama","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/en\/yama\/","title":{"rendered":"Yama"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"4441\" class=\"elementor elementor-4441 elementor-1997 elementor-bc-flex-widget\" data-elementor-post-type=\"page\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-10fdade e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"10fdade\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-herohlft0 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"herohlft0\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c3ceb64 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"c3ceb64\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-96ae5e1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"96ae5e1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Yama, god of the Hindu tradition<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e45238a elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"e45238a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Yama is a god of the Hindu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"The passing on of knowledge and narratives across generations.\" tabindex=\"0\">tradition<\/span>.<\/p><p><strong>The first mortal, the god of death and judge of souls.<\/strong> Yama is one of the oldest Indian deities, not evil but inevitable like death itself. As the first human to die, he became the ruler of the afterlife, the <em>Yamadharma<\/em>, the <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"In Hinduism, duty and cosmic order; in Buddhism, the teaching of the Buddha.\">Dharma<\/span> of death.<\/p><p>With his staff (<em>Danda<\/em>) and his faithful buffalo <em>Nandi<\/em>, Yama roams the world, gathers the souls of the dying and brings them before judgment. In Hinduism he is not a <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A spiritual being to which harmful or ambivalent influence is attributed.\" tabindex=\"0\">demon<\/span>, but a necessary force of the cosmic order.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-klsbdg01 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"klsbdg01\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-klshtm01 elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"klshtm01\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"iwg-pill-row\"><span class=\"iwg-klasse-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"God \/ goddess: A personified supreme power in the pantheon of a culture, with clear responsibilities, forces of nature, fate, war, fertility. Worshipped through cults, sacrifices and temple institutions.\">God<\/span><a href=\"\/en\/hinduism\/\" class=\"iwg-kultur-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Hindu worlds of gods, asuras and protectors, from Vedic to Tantric.\">Hinduism<\/a><a href=\"\/en\/death-deities\/\" class=\"iwg-tradition-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Gods of the underworld and of death, rulers of the afterlife, judges of the dead, guides of souls.\">Deity of the dead<\/a><\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3f74855 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"3f74855\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1c30362 elementor-toc--minimized-on-tablet elementor-widget elementor-widget-table-of-contents\" data-id=\"1c30362\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;exclude_headings_by_selector&quot;:[],&quot;no_headings_message&quot;:&quot;Es wurden keine \\u00dcberschriften auf dieser Seite gefunden.&quot;,&quot;headings_by_tags&quot;:[&quot;h2&quot;,&quot;h3&quot;],&quot;marker_view&quot;:&quot;bullets&quot;,&quot;minimize_box&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;icon&quot;:{&quot;value&quot;:&quot;fas fa-circle&quot;,&quot;library&quot;:&quot;fa-solid&quot;,&quot;rendered_tag&quot;:&quot;&lt;svg class=\\&quot;e-font-icon-svg e-fas-circle\\&quot; viewBox=\\&quot;0 0 512 512\\&quot; xmlns=\\&quot;http:\\\/\\\/www.w3.org\\\/2000\\\/svg\\&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=\\&quot;M256 8C119 8 8 119 8 256s111 248 248 248 248-111 248-248S393 8 256 8z\\&quot;&gt;&lt;\\\/path&gt;&lt;\\\/svg&gt;&quot;},&quot;minimized_on&quot;:&quot;tablet&quot;,&quot;hierarchical_view&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;min_height&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"table-of-contents.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__header\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-toc__header-title\">\n\t\t\t\tTable of Contents\t\t\t<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--expand\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__1c30362\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Open table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-down\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M207.029 381.476L12.686 187.132c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941l22.667-22.667c9.357-9.357 24.522-9.375 33.901-.04L224 284.505l154.745-154.021c9.379-9.335 24.544-9.317 33.901.04l22.667 22.667c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941L240.971 381.476c-9.373 9.372-24.569 9.372-33.942 0z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--collapse\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__1c30362\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Close table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M240.971 130.524l194.343 194.343c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941l-22.667 22.667c-9.357 9.357-24.522 9.375-33.901.04L224 227.495 69.255 381.516c-9.379 9.335-24.544 9.317-33.901-.04l-22.667-22.667c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941L207.03 130.525c9.372-9.373 24.568-9.373 33.941-.001z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-toc__1c30362\" class=\"elementor-toc__body\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__spinner-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<svg class=\"elementor-toc__spinner eicon-animation-spin e-font-icon-svg e-eicon-loading\" aria-hidden=\"true\" viewBox=\"0 0 1000 1000\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M500 975V858C696 858 858 696 858 500S696 142 500 142 142 304 142 500H25C25 237 238 25 500 25S975 237 975 500 763 975 500 975Z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-herorght0 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"herorght0\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-heroimg00 iwg-hero-image elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"heroimg00\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"683\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/goetter_hinduismus_yama-683x1024.webp\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-4442\" alt=\"Yama - Gods from the Hindu tradition, historical and illustrative\" srcset=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/goetter_hinduismus_yama-683x1024.webp 683w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/goetter_hinduismus_yama-200x300.webp 200w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/goetter_hinduismus_yama-768x1152.webp 768w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/goetter_hinduismus_yama.webp 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 683px) 100vw, 683px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-32917199 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"32917199\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-26e916cb e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"26e916cb\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-253a40d4 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"253a40d4\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1200c304 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"1200c304\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Yama<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-159dcf9a e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"159dcf9a\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-48cee66f elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"48cee66f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">At a glance: Yama<\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3f50d82c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"3f50d82c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>Type:<\/strong> Hindu-Buddhist principal <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A being venerated as divine within a religion.\" tabindex=\"0\">deity<\/span>, judge of the dead and ruler of the underworld<br><span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"The totality of the gods of a religion or culture.\" tabindex=\"0\">Pantheon<\/span>: Hinduism, Buddhism (Yamaraja), Tibet (Yama-Dharmaraja)<br>Function: First mortal to experience death; now judge of all the dead, lord of Naraka<br>Main attributes: Black buffalo as mount, club (Danda), noose (Pasha), book of the dead<br>Main <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"The totality of religious acts of veneration for a deity or sacred figure.\" tabindex=\"0\">cult<\/span> sites: Yama <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A structure that serves the worship of one or more deities.\" tabindex=\"0\">temples<\/span> in Tamil Nadu, Tibetan monasteries (Cham dance), Japan (Enma-O)<br>Buddhist identification: Yamaraja (also in Tibet), Enma-O (Japan), Yeomra (Korea)<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-18613602 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"18613602\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-262b8a9f elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"262b8a9f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Classification<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-46dcb7d e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"46dcb7d\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-61d3ab3 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"61d3ab3\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-117c166 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"117c166\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Period of the texts<\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-73997a0 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"73997a0\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Yama is attested in the <em>Rigveda<\/em> (1200&ndash;900 BCE) as the first mortal, the one who first walked the path into the world of the dead and rules there. In the later epic tradition (<em>Mahabharata<\/em>) he becomes the stern judge of the dead.<\/p><p>Adopted in Buddhism as <em>Yamaraja<\/em>, with an expanded cosmos of hells. In Tibet since the 8th century CE as Yama-Dharmaraja in the wrathful-deity pantheons. In East Asia as Enma-O \/ Yeomra \/ Yanluo, each with local adaptations.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d47b156 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"d47b156\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ff38c2b elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"ff38c2b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Area of distribution<\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4e49fcc elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"4e49fcc\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>In India, <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A structure that serves the worship of one or more deities.\" tabindex=\"0\">temples<\/span> to Yama are rare; the judge of the dead is feared, not popular in cultic terms. The most important: the Yamadharma <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A structure that serves the worship of one or more deities.\" tabindex=\"0\">temple<\/span> in Tamil Nadu, Yama mandirs in Nepal.<\/p><p>In Tibet he is central to the Cham dance performances of the Gelug monasteries (especially Drepung, Ganden, Sera). In Japan he appears as an Enma-O statue in every Buddhist cemetery. In Korea: Yeomra in the shamanistic Mu-sok tradition.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-db03c39 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"db03c39\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-229a87b e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"229a87b\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1f471fc elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"1f471fc\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Source situation<\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-36b1201 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"36b1201\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Central sources: <em>Rigveda<\/em> X 14&ndash;18 (Yama as the first dead), <em>Atharvaveda<\/em>, <em>Mahabharata<\/em> (Book I, Sabha Parva: the description of Yama-Sabha), <em>Markandeya Purana<\/em>, <em>Garuda Purana<\/em> (descriptions of the hells).<\/p><p>Buddhist: <em>Devadhamma Sutta<\/em>, the Tibetan <em><span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"In Tibetan Buddhism, the transitional state between two existences; the Bardo Thodol describes the phase after death.\" tabindex=\"0\">Bardo<\/span> Thodol<\/em>. Secondary literature: O&rsquo;Flaherty, <em>The Origins of Evil in Hindu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"The totality of the transmitted divine narratives of a culture.\" tabindex=\"0\">Mythology<\/span><\/em>; Doniger, <em>Hindu Myths<\/em>; Lopez, <em>The Tibetan Book of the Dead<\/em>.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3ae0637c e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"3ae0637c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-31d07739 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"31d07739\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Name<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b7642947 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"b7642947\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a086266 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"a086266\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Yama is depicted as a green-skinned or reddish man, often in royal armour. He carries a staff (<em>Danda<\/em>), his attribute of punishment and order, and often a noose (<em>Pasha<\/em>) to bind the souls.<\/p><p>His buffalo <em>Nandi<\/em> is his most important animal; sometimes he also rides horses or mingles among the living. In later iconographic texts he has a green or grey-black face.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-709a44a8 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"709a44a8\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2f585873 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"2f585873\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Description<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-70621c12 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"70621c12\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4296eb49 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"4296eb49\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Yama is the uncontested judge. No deception escapes him. When a lifespan ends, Yama comes in person, or his envoy Chitragupta keeps the records, to fetch the soul. The soul is then brought to <em>Yamaloka<\/em>, where its deeds (<em>Karma<\/em>) are weighed.<\/p><p>Depending on the <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"In Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, the law of cause and effect of action: every deed acts back upon subsequent existences.\">Karma<\/span>, punishment (<em>Naraka<\/em>) or reward (<em>Swarga<\/em>) follows before the next rebirth. Rituals for the deceased (<em>Shraddha<\/em>) are meant to appease Yama and to guide the souls more quickly into the next life.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-44e71476 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"44e71476\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3c1fc3f0 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"3c1fc3f0\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Profile: Yama<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-84f33b8e e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"84f33b8e\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-hqkdc67p elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"hqkdc67p\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The most important aspects of Yama at a glance. The following fields summarise origin, function, appearance, worship, symbols and parallels.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-pemmx7c5 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"pemmx7c5\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-pemmx7c1 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"pemmx7c1\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-qh9oavvu iwg-steckbrief-card e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"qh9oavvu\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-awzx8k2k elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"awzx8k2k\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Yama's origin<\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-x6rowhv0 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"x6rowhv0\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Yama is the son of the sun deity Vivasvat (Surya) and Saranyu, twin brother of Yami.<\/p><p>In the oldest <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A handed-down narrative about gods, origins and the order of the world.\" tabindex=\"0\">myth<\/span> the first human to encounter death, hence the one who first walked the path into the world of the dead and now rules within it. In later traditions married to the wife Dhumorna, he has two hounds (descendants of Sarama) as guardians of the way. His house lies in the south.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8e3o4kxs iwg-steckbrief-card e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"8e3o4kxs\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-08rkdgov elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"08rkdgov\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Yama's target group<\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-uwjelx8s elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"uwjelx8s\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The first dead, therefore king of the dead. <em>Dharmaraja<\/em> (king of duty), the judge who decides according to the karma of each deceased person. Administrator of the 21 hells (Naraka) and of the heavenly rewards.<\/p><p>In Buddhism formally a keeper of the cosmic law (<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"In the Indian religions, the teaching and the right order of action.\" tabindex=\"0\">Dharma<\/span>) with regard to the logic of deed and consequence. In Tibet, as a wrathful deity, also a protector of the school tradition against negative forces.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-jm2n74ec iwg-steckbrief-card e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"jm2n74ec\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8vufse4c elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"8vufse4c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Yama's appearance<\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-mwb9u015 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"mwb9u015\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>In the Hindu tradition: a dark-skinned (green-blue-black) figure with colourful ornaments, holding the <em>Danda<\/em> (club of judgment) and <em>Pasha<\/em> (noose with which he catches the souls), riding a black buffalo. Red attire.<\/p><p>In Tibet as <em>Yama-Dharmaraja<\/em>: buffalo head, three eyes, flaming aureole, bone ornaments, a curved crown of hair, holding a skull cup and a sword. Accompanied by his sister Yami and a host of servants.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-pemmx7c2 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"pemmx7c2\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-37ss2yr6 iwg-steckbrief-card e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"37ss2yr6\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3v0wp3wx elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"3v0wp3wx\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Activity<\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-w3247g2m elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"w3247g2m\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>Sphere of influence:<\/strong> In India, Yama is rarely <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"The petitioning or invoking address to a deity or power.\" tabindex=\"0\">invoked<\/span> directly for protection; he is feared as the stern one. In death rites, however, he is central, and the bereaved ask for mild treatment of the deceased.<\/p><p>In the <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"In Tibetan Buddhism, the transitional state between two existences; the Bardo Thodol describes the phase after death.\">Bardo<\/span> Thodol (the Tibetan Book of the Dead) he appears to the deceased in the <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"In Tibetan Buddhism, the transitional state between two existences; the Bardo Thodol describes the phase after death.\">Bardo<\/span> state as a testing figure. In Japan, Enma-O is a central figure of the popular Buddhist death rites and is found in every cemetery. In the Cham dances of Tibet he appears as a fearsome masked figure.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0qpjal9w iwg-steckbrief-card e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"0qpjal9w\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6ndoih0o elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"6ndoih0o\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Means of protection<\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6684tyh9 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"6684tyh9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Black buffalo (mount), Danda (club), Pasha (noose), book of the dead, mirror of karma (Karma-Darpana), skull cup (Tibetan), buffalo head (Tibetan), flaming aureole, third eye. Plants: black asphodel. <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Belonging to the divine and thereby withdrawn from everyday use.\" tabindex=\"0\">Sacred<\/span> direction: south.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3lfi7x32 iwg-steckbrief-card e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"3lfi7x32\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0kg99ga1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"0kg99ga1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Comparable beings<\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-n0fum6kp elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"n0fum6kp\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><em>Yamaraja<\/em> (Buddhism), <em>Yama-Dharmaraja<\/em> (Tibet), <em>Enma-O<\/em> (Japan), <em>Yeomra<\/em> (Korea), <em>Yanluo<\/em> (China, first of the ten kings of hell), <em>Hades<\/em> (Greece, king of the underworld), <em>Pluto<\/em> (Rome), <em>Anubis\/Osiris<\/em> (Egypt, guide of the dead and judge of the dead), <em>Hel<\/em> (Germanic, ruler of the underworld), <em>Mictlantecuhtli<\/em> (Aztec).<\/p><p>The Indo-European root is recognisable in the Yama-Yima-Yumis stem (Vedic Yama, Avestan Yima, Baltic Yumis).<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7533bc7a e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"7533bc7a\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2447d18d elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"2447d18d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Protective practice<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d5d0260c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"d5d0260c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-341be2ac elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"341be2ac\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>Rituals of worship<\/strong><\/p><p>Yama is worshipped in Vedic domestic rituals through <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"An offering to a deity to express gratitude, petition, or veneration.\" tabindex=\"0\">offerings<\/span> (Havis): milk, butter, grain at <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"An ancestor venerated in many cultures as a protective power.\" tabindex=\"0\">ancestral<\/span> commemorations (Pinda-Daan). Rigveda 10.14 documents formulas of worship for a dignified death.<\/p><p>In the Hindu funeral <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"An ordered sequence of symbolic actions with religious or cultural meaning.\" tabindex=\"0\">ritual<\/span>, a Yama <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A sacred syllable or formula repeatedly spoken in Hinduism and Buddhism.\" tabindex=\"0\">mantra<\/span> is recited before the cremation. Modern practice: meditations at the deathbed or at ancestral commemorations in honour of the king of <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"In the Indian religions, the teaching and the right order of action.\" tabindex=\"0\">Dharma<\/span>.<\/p><p><strong>Invocations and appeals<\/strong><\/p><p>The classic <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"The petitioning or conjuring address of a deity or power.\" tabindex=\"0\">invocation<\/span> of Yama from Rigveda 10.14.1-2: \u201eYame pathivratah &#8230; \u201c, \u201eTo walk with Yama in the sense of <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"In the Indian religions, the teaching and the right order of action.\" tabindex=\"0\">Dharma<\/span> &#8230;\u201c. Mantras to overcome the fear of death are found in the Katha Upanishad (Nachiketas&#8217; dialogue with Yama). Tibetan tantric tradition integrates Yamantaka (the conquest of Yama) into invocations of total transcendence.<\/p><p><strong><span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A worn object to which a protective, misfortune-averting effect is attributed.\" tabindex=\"0\">Amulets<\/span> and protective symbols<\/strong><\/p><p>Yama symbols are rare as a wearable <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A worn object to which a protective, ill-averting effect is attributed.\" tabindex=\"0\">amulet<\/span>; the connection is more conceptual. Historical scarabs in Egypt bearing Yama analogies to the god of the dead Anubis attest to a cultural overlap.<\/p><p>Archaeological evidence for the worship of Yama is found in Vedic ritual texts and in inscriptions in Indian temples from the 3rd century BCE, not as object amulets.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5a584676 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"5a584676\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6d0757bf elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"6d0757bf\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Yama, parallels in other cultures<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-60563f68 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"60563f68\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5a93fdd6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"5a93fdd6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<footer class=\"iwg-literatur\"><p>Yama resembles the Hades of the Greeks, the Dis Pater of the Romans and the Osiris of Egypt, all gods of the underworld and of judgment.<\/p><p>With Chitragupta, his accountant, Yama recalls the Christian notion of St Peter with the book of souls. Unlike Western gods of death, however, Yama is not an evil adversary but a cosmic official whose judgment is just and unavoidable.<\/p><div data-nosnippet=\"true\" class=\"iwg-litliste\"><\/div><\/footer>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp1b125fc e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cp1b125fc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp3cfb1a6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cp3cfb1a6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">The myth of the first mortal<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp1f925c2 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cp1f925c2\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp8613854 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp8613854\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The oldest layer of the Indian <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"The passing on of knowledge and narratives across generations.\" tabindex=\"0\">tradition<\/span> knows Yama not as a punishing judge but as the first human who died. The tenth <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A circular diagram that depicts the cosmos in Hinduism and Buddhism.\" tabindex=\"0\">mandala<\/span> of the <em>Rigveda<\/em> contains several hymns that carry this idea.<\/p><p>In <em>Rigveda<\/em> 10.14 Yama is invoked as the one who first found the way to the afterlife and thereby opened it for all his descendants. There he is regarded as the son of the sun god Vivasvant and thus as related to the human race itself.<\/p><p>A particularly much-discussed hymn is <em>Rigveda<\/em> 10.10, the dialogue between Yama and his twin sister Yami. Yami urges Yama to unite so that the human race may continue, and Yama rejects her by pointing to the prohibition of incest among siblings and to the watching gods.<\/p><p><span data-nosnippet>Scholarship, for example Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton in their 2014 translation of the Rigveda, reads this hymn as a reflection on the limits of permitted kinship relations, not as an aetiology of humanity.<\/span><\/p><p>Remarkable is the linguistic closeness to the Old Iranian Yima, who in the <em>Avesta<\/em> likewise appears as the first king and lord of an underground refuge. Both names go back to an Indo-Iranian root meaning twin.<\/p><p>Comparative Indo-European studies, among others in the works of Bruce Lincoln, have seen in this the remnant of a shared myth of creation and death, in which the first human is at once the first dead and ruler of the ancestors.<\/p><p>The later Yama of the epics and Puranas, who commands hells and a <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"The transmission of knowledge and narratives across generations.\" tabindex=\"0\">record<\/span>-keeping of deeds, is a considerable development of this early figure.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp5e6d19f e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cp5e6d19f\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp5d9ad8e elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cp5d9ad8e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Yama's realm and the record-keeping of deeds<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp960b1b5 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cp960b1b5\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp5504436 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp5504436\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>In the epic and Puranic literature, Yama changes from lord of the blessed ancestors to administrator of a differentiated afterlife. His abode, <em>Yamaloka<\/em> or <em>Yamapura<\/em>, lies according to most texts in the south, which is why the south is regarded in ritual geography as Yama&#8217;s cardinal direction.<\/p><p>The <em>Garuda Purana<\/em>, a central text for the notions of dying and of the soul&#8217;s journey, describes the deceased&#8217;s journey across the glowing river <em>Vaitarani<\/em> to Yama&#8217;s throne.<\/p><p>At Yama&#8217;s side stands <em>Chitragupta<\/em>, a scribe who records every deed of a human being in a register. This book, often called <em>Agrasandhani<\/em>, is read out at death, and according to its content Yama decides the further path.<\/p><p>Chitragupta has become in northern India the ancestor of the scribal caste of the Kayasthas, who venerate him as their forefather. Here it becomes apparent how a mythological figure establishes social identity.<\/p><p>The punishments in Yama&#8217;s hells, the <em>Naraka<\/em>, are catalogued in the <em>Garuda Purana<\/em> and in parts of the <em>Manusmriti<\/em> and assigned to particular offences. Decisive, however, is that according to <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"The era of Greek and Roman culture, roughly 800 BCE to 600 CE.\" tabindex=\"0\">classical<\/span> doctrine these hells are not eternal places.<\/p><p>They are stations in the cycle of rebirth, and after the consequences of bad deeds have been atoned for, the soul&#8217;s path continues.<\/p><p>Yama is thus less a god of final damnation than a functionary of the cosmic law. His <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A fixed epithet that characterizes a deity or figure.\" tabindex=\"0\">epithet<\/span> <em>Dharmaraja<\/em>, king of <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"In the Indian religions, the teaching and the right order of action.\" tabindex=\"0\">Dharma<\/span>, expresses exactly that: he executes an order, he does not invent it.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp681dbb8 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cp681dbb8\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp5666882 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cp5666882\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Yama in the Bhagavad Gita and the Katha Upanishad<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp2ae4b61 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cp2ae4b61\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp9e65f84 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp9e65f84\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Two classical texts give Yama a role that goes beyond the merely judicial. In the <em>Katha Upanishad<\/em>, Yama is the teacher.<\/p><p>The young Brahmin Nachiketas is promised to death by his father in anger and waits three days before Yama&#8217;s house. As recompense, Yama grants him three wishes. The third is the question of what happens to a human being after death.<\/p><p>Yama first tries to distract Nachiketas with wealth and long life, but the youth persists. Thereupon Yama teaches him the distinction between the pleasant and the salutary and instructs him about the immortal self, the <em>Atman<\/em>. Here the god of death is paradoxically the mediator of the knowledge that overcomes death.<\/p><p>In the <em>Bhagavad Gita<\/em>, in the tenth chapter, in which Krishna enumerates his divine manifestations, he says of himself that he is Yama among the subduers or judges.<\/p><p>Thereby Yama is placed in the ranks of the highest representatives of their respective class. The statement underlines that in classical Hinduism Yama is not a demonic but an ordered and legitimate power.<\/p><p>This textual tradition has strongly shaped the religious-studies assessment of Yama. While popular depictions reduce him to terror, Indologists such as Wendy Doniger emphasise that Yama appears in Sanskrit literature equally as an instructor, as a just figure and as a necessary authority.<\/p><p>Death in this view is not the opposite of order but a part of it.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp1a6dd18 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cp1a6dd18\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cpe3ae724 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cpe3ae724\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Iconography and distribution beyond India<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cpb513861 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cpb513861\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp5b64d2c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp5b64d2c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>In the visual arts, Yama is mostly depicted with dark, often green or bluish skin, clothed in red, with a buffalo as a mount beneath him. In his hands he carries a noose, the <em>Pasha<\/em>, with which he draws the life-soul out of the body, and often a staff or club, the <em>Danda<\/em>.<\/p><p>These attributes are stable in temple reliefs and in miniature painting since the Middle Ages. As one of the <em>Lokapalas<\/em>, the guardians of the world directions, Yama regularly appears on temple exterior walls on the southern side.<\/p><p>Through Buddhism, Yama reached Tibet, China, Japan and Southeast Asia and changed in the process.<\/p><p>In the Tibetan tradition he is, as <em>Shinje<\/em>, lord of the judgment of the dead and at the same time the object of his own instructional story, in which the <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"In Mahayana Buddhism, an enlightened being who postpones their liberation for the sake of teaching other beings.\" tabindex=\"0\">bodhisattva<\/span> Manjushri subdues him in the form of <em>Yamantaka<\/em>, the conqueror of Yama.<\/p><p>In China he became <em>Yanluo<\/em>, the head of the ten kings of hell (see <a href=\"\/en\/yanluo\/\">Yanluo<\/a>), in Japan <em>Enma<\/em>. This migration shows how an Indian god could become a pan-Asian <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A vivid image that stands for an abstract idea.\" tabindex=\"0\">emblem<\/span> of the incorruptible judgment of the dead.<\/p><p>In present-day India, Yama lives on above all in funeral rituals, in literature on dying and in the festival <em>Yama Dvitiya<\/em> or <em>Bhai Dooj<\/em>, which ties in with the relationship between Yama and his sister Yami.<\/p><p>The sister entertains the brother and asks for a long life for him. Thus a <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A recurring thematic element in art or narrative.\" tabindex=\"0\">motif<\/span> returns in <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"The totality of the handed-down customs of a community.\" tabindex=\"0\">folk custom<\/span> that was already laid out in the oldest Vedic hymn, the dialogue of the twins.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cpbdd2ba4 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cpbdd2ba4\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp77afc58 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cp77afc58\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">History of research and dispute over interpretation<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cpf7f3b26 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cpf7f3b26\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp019c46c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp019c46c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The scholarly study of Yama begins in the 19th century with the European opening up of the <em>Rigveda<\/em>. Early Indologists such as Hermann Oldenberg and Abel Bergaigne disputed whether Yama had originally been a deified primordial human or a death deity from the outset.<\/p><p>The debate is closely connected with the question of how the hymns 10.10 and 10.14 are to be dated and read.<\/p><p>In the 20th century, comparative Indo-European studies shifted the focus to the relationship between Yama and the Iranian Yima. Georges Dumezil and, in his succession, other researchers reconstructed from this an Indo-Iranian, possibly Indo-European <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"A handed-down narrative about gods, origins and the order of the world.\" tabindex=\"0\">myth<\/span> of the first mortal who becomes ruler of the dead.<\/p><p>Bruce Lincoln has argued in <em>Death, War, and <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"An offering to a deity to express thanks, request, or veneration.\" tabindex=\"0\">Sacrifice<\/span><\/em> that behind Yama and related figures stands a shared creation scheme in which the first killing structures the world.<\/p><p>It remains contested how strongly the Vedic Yama is to be separated from the later Puranic Yama. Some researchers see a continuous development, others emphasise a break between the ancestral king of the early period and the administrator of hells of the classical texts.<\/p><p>The origin of the scribe Chitragupta is also open, since he is absent in the oldest layers and presumably was added later, possibly under the influence of concrete social groups.<\/p><p>The source situation here compels caution: much of what is taken as a fixed image of Yama is the result of centuries-long layering of various textual traditions.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-36dd7469 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"36dd7469\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-13760ab4 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"13760ab4\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Further links<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-28c87796 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"28c87796\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5d6538df elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"5d6538df\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<ul><li><a href=\"\/en\/yamaraja\/\">Yamaraja, Buddhist adoption<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/en\/yama-judge-of-the-dead\/\">Yama, judge of the dead (Buddhism)<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/en\/enma-o\/\">Enma-O, Japanese form<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/en\/yeomra\/\">Yeomra, Korean form<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/en\/hades\/\">Hades, Greek parallel<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/en\/hinduism\/\">Hinduism, pantheon overview<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/en\/death-deities\/\">Deities of the dead, sub-category<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-grl4kl40 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"grl4kl40\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-bzsbfrmh elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"bzsbfrmh\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Literature (selection)<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2c13224a e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"2c13224a\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0eymh9ub elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"0eymh9ub\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<footer class=\"iwg-literatur\" data-nosnippet=\"true\"><ul><li><span data-nosnippet>O&rsquo;Flaherty, Wendy Doniger: <em>The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology<\/em>. Berkeley 1976.<\/span><\/li><li><span data-nosnippet>Doniger, Wendy: <em>Hindu Myths. A Sourcebook<\/em>. London 1975.<\/span><\/li><li><span data-nosnippet>Lopez, Donald S.: <em>The Tibetan Book of the Dead. A Biography<\/em>. Princeton 2011.<\/span><\/li><li>Rigveda X 14&ndash;18 (numerous translations).<\/li><li>Walde, Christine (ed.): <em>Der Neue Pauly<\/em> (entry \u201eYama\u201c).<\/li><\/ul><\/footer>\n<p class=\"iwg-bib-more\"><span data-nosnippet>Further standard works in the <a href=\"\/en\/literature\/\">literature index<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-9bd3732 e-con-boxed e-flex e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"9bd3732\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-599231e elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"599231e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2>Frequently asked questions about Yama<\/h2><div class=\"iwg-faq-q\"><h3>Who is Yama in Buddhism?<\/h3><p>In Buddhism, Yama is the ruler of the hell realm (Naraka) and judge of the deceased. Unlike in the Western understanding, the Buddhist hell is not an eternal place of punishment but a temporally limited place of rebirth: whoever has atoned for their karma there is reborn.<\/p><p>Yama questions every dead person about their deeds in life; <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Great Vehicle; one of the three main traditions of Buddhism, with the bodhisattva ideal.\" tabindex=\"0\">Mahayana<\/span> Buddhism knows a whole court of judges of hell who assist him. Yama&#8217;s realms are described with inconceivable detail in Buddhist <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"The conception of the structure and order of the world within a culture.\" tabindex=\"0\">cosmology<\/span> (Abhidharma texts).<\/p><\/div><div class=\"iwg-faq-q\"><h3>How does Yama in Buddhism differ from the Hindu Yamaraja?<\/h3><p>Both figures share a common origin in the Vedic Yama (Rigveda 10.14), the first mortal who at the same time became lord of the dead. In Hinduism, Yama remained the central judging god who receives every soul.<\/p><p>In Buddhism, Yama became a many-faced figure: in Theravada more as a concept, in Mahayana and especially in Tibetan Buddhism as a personified lord of hell with complex <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"The study of the contents of images and their meaning.\" tabindex=\"0\">iconography<\/span> (often with a bull&#8217;s head, the Yama aspect Dharmaraja). In Tibet, the wandering demon dancers (Cham festival) are often performers of Yama.<\/p><\/div><script type=\"application\/ld+json\">{\"@context\":\"https:\/\/schema.org\",\"@type\":\"FAQPage\",\"mainEntity\":[{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"Who is Yama in Buddhism?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"In Buddhism, Yama is the ruler of the hell realm (Naraka) and judge of the deceased. 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As the first human to die, he became the ruler of the afterlife, the Yamadharma, [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":4442,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"elementor_header_footer","meta":{"_yoast_wpseo_focuskw":"Yama","_yoast_wpseo_title":"Yama: The God of Death and Judge in Hinduism","_yoast_wpseo_metadesc":"Yama, god of death and judge in Hinduism. Staff and buffalo Nandi, Yamaloka, karmic judgment and Vedic origins: father of the human race.","_yoast_wpseo_meta-robots-noindex":"","_yoast_wpseo_canonical":"","_angie_page":false,"gefaehrdungsstufe":"","wesen_kultur":"","wesen_klasse":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[79,86,90],"class_list":["post-4441","page","type-page","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-cultures","category-gods","category-hinduism"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v27.7 (Yoast SEO v27.7) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-premium-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Yama: The God of Death and Judge in Hinduism<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Yama, god of death and judge in Hinduism. 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