{"id":138301,"date":"2026-09-03T07:08:22","date_gmt":"2026-09-03T07:08:22","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/?page_id=138301"},"modified":"2026-09-03T07:56:44","modified_gmt":"2026-09-03T07:56:44","slug":"baal-hammon-karthagisk-hovedgud","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/da\/baal-hammon-karthagisk-hovedgud\/","title":{"rendered":"Baal-Hammon \u2013 Karthagisk hovedgud"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"138301\" class=\"elementor elementor-138301 elementor-2628 elementor-bc-flex-widget\" data-elementor-post-type=\"page\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-hero e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-hero\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-hl e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-hl\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-htxt e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-htxt\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-h1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-h1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Baal-Hammon, punisk-karthagisk hovedgud og Saturnus Africanus<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-lead elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-lead\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon (punisk <em>b\u02bfl \u1e25mn<\/em>) er den \u00f8verste mandlige gud i det puniske Karthago og dets kolonier. Han optr\u00e6der regelm\u00e6ssigt sammen med <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/da\/?page_id=138300\">Tanit<\/a> og er modtager af offergaverne fra tofet. I den romerske periode blev han identificeret med Saturnus.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-pillc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-pillc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-pills elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-pills\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"iwg-pill-row\"><span class=\"iwg-klasse-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Gud af traditionen f\u00f8nikisk.\">Gud<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/da\/?page_id=138242\" class=\"iwg-kultur-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Mytologi af traditionen f\u00f8nikisk.\">F\u00f8nikisk<\/a><span class=\"iwg-tradition-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Hovedgudom.\">Hovedgudom<\/span><\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-tocc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-tocc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-toc elementor-toc--minimized-on-tablet elementor-widget elementor-widget-table-of-contents\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;headings_by_tags&quot;:[&quot;h2&quot;,&quot;h3&quot;],&quot;minimize_box&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;marker_view&quot;:&quot;bullets&quot;,&quot;no_headings_message&quot;:&quot;Der blev ikke fundet nogen overskrifter p\\u00e5 denne side.&quot;,&quot;exclude_headings_by_selector&quot;:[],&quot;icon&quot;:{&quot;value&quot;:&quot;fas fa-circle&quot;,&quot;library&quot;:&quot;fa-solid&quot;,&quot;rendered_tag&quot;:&quot;&lt;svg class=\\&quot;e-font-icon-svg e-fas-circle\\&quot; viewBox=\\&quot;0 0 512 512\\&quot; xmlns=\\&quot;http:\\\/\\\/www.w3.org\\\/2000\\\/svg\\&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=\\&quot;M256 8C119 8 8 119 8 256s111 248 248 248 248-111 248-248S393 8 256 8z\\&quot;&gt;&lt;\\\/path&gt;&lt;\\\/svg&gt;&quot;},&quot;minimized_on&quot;:&quot;tablet&quot;,&quot;hierarchical_view&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;min_height&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"table-of-contents.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__header\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-toc__header-title\">\n\t\t\t\tIndholdsfortegnelse\t\t\t<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--expand\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Open table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-down\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M207.029 381.476L12.686 187.132c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941l22.667-22.667c9.357-9.357 24.522-9.375 33.901-.04L224 284.505l154.745-154.021c9.379-9.335 24.544-9.317 33.901.04l22.667 22.667c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941L240.971 381.476c-9.373 9.372-24.569 9.372-33.942 0z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--collapse\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Close table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M240.971 130.524l194.343 194.343c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941l-22.667 22.667c-9.357 9.357-24.522 9.375-33.901.04L224 227.495 69.255 381.516c-9.379 9.335-24.544 9.317-33.901-.04l-22.667-22.667c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941L207.03 130.525c9.372-9.373 24.568-9.373 33.941-.001z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-toc__iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" class=\"elementor-toc__body\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__spinner-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<svg class=\"elementor-toc__spinner eicon-animation-spin e-font-icon-svg e-eicon-loading\" aria-hidden=\"true\" viewBox=\"0 0 1000 1000\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M500 975V858C696 858 858 696 858 500S696 142 500 142 142 304 142 500H25C25 237 238 25 500 25S975 237 975 500 763 975 500 975Z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-hr e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-hr\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-heroimg iwg-hero-image elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-heroimg\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"683\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-683x1024.webp\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-140136\" alt=\"Baal Hammon - guder fra den f\u00f8nikiske tradition, historisk-illustrativ\" srcset=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-683x1024.webp 683w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-200x300.webp 200w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-768x1152.webp 768w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon.webp 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 683px) 100vw, 683px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Indordning og kort profil<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon er en af de vigtigste guddomme i den vestlige middelhavsverdens puniske kultur. Sabatino Moscati har i <em>Il mondo dei Fenici<\/em> (1966) vist, at Baal-Hammon ganske vist er belagt i det f\u00f8nikiske moderland, men her spillede en anden rolle; i Karthago n\u00e5ede han til tops i pantheonet og deler denne position med <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/da\/?page_id=138300\">Tanit<\/a>. Inden for <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/da\/?page_id=138242\">den f\u00f8nikiske tradition<\/a> er han den prototypiske puniske hovedgud.<\/p><p>Maria Eugenia Aubet har i <em>The Phoenicians and the West<\/em> (2001) dokumenteret den middelhavsomfattende udbredelse; Baal-Hammon-helligdomme er belagt i Karthago, Motya, Tharros, Sulcis, Hadrumetum og mange andre steder. I den romerske kejsertid forts\u00e6tter hans tilbedelse som Saturnus Africanus og opn\u00e5r en bem\u00e6rkelsesv\u00e6rdig vedholdenhed i den numidisk-mauretanske provins helt op til det 4. \u00e5rhundrede e.Kr.<\/p><p>Religionshistorisk repr\u00e6senterer Baal-Hammon typen af en hovedgud med b\u00e5de ktoniske og solare aspekter. Marcel Le Glay har i <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (1966) vist, at identifikationen med den romerske Saturnus bygger p\u00e5 Baal-Hammons dobbeltnatur: Han er b\u00e5de korn- og h\u00f8stgud (saturnisk aspekt) og ktonisk fadergud.<\/p><p>Tofet-stelerne og de talrige inskriptioner registrerer hans <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Den samlede m\u00e6ngde af religi\u00f8se tilbedelseshandlinger for en guddom eller hellig skikkelse.\" tabindex=\"0\">kult<\/span> som et centralt religionshistorisk fund.<\/p><p>Baal-Hammons vedholdenhed i den romerske kejsertid som Saturnus Africanus er et af de mest bem\u00e6rkelsesv\u00e6rdige eksempler p\u00e5 religionshistorisk kontinuitet efter den puniske stats politiske fald. Mere end to tusind Saturnus-steler er bevaret fra de nordafrikanske provinser, fra det 1. til det 4. \u00e5rhundrede e.Kr.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Navn og etymologi<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Navnet <em>b\u02bfl \u1e25mn<\/em> er sammensat af <em>b\u02bfl<\/em> &#8216;herre&#8217; og <em>\u1e25mn<\/em>, hvis etymologi er omdiskuteret. En tolkning forbinder <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> med roden <em>\u1e25mm<\/em> &#8216;at v\u00e6re varm&#8217; og ser Baal-Hammon som &#8216;herre over hede&#8217;, formodentlig med solar karakter.<\/p><p>En anden tolkning ser <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> som et stednavn &#8216;Hammon&#8217; (m\u00e5ske et sted i F\u00f8nikien) og Baal-Hammon som &#8216;herre af Hammon&#8217;. En tredje mulighed forbinder <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> med r\u00f8gelseskultobjekter (&#8216;r\u00f8gelsesalter&#8217;).<\/p><p>Charles Krahmalkov har i <em>A Phoenician-Punic Grammar<\/em> (2001) sammenstillet de epigrafiske varianter; i inskriptioner optr\u00e6der han som <em>b\u02bfl \u1e25mn<\/em> eller kort <em>b\u02bfl<\/em>. Den gr\u00e6ske gengivelse er \u0392\u03ac\u03b1\u03bb-\u1f08\u03bc\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd (Baal-Ammon), i den hellenistiske periode enkelte gange ogs\u00e5 identificeret med den egyptiske Amun (i spor). Den romerske identifikation med Saturnus er den mest varige og pr\u00e6ger den afrikansk-romerske religionshistorie.<\/p><p>I det hebraiske materiale optr\u00e6der Hammon som et stednavn i Galil\u00e6a; om der findes en direkte historisk forbindelse, er uklart. I aram\u00e6iske inskriptioner fra Palmyra optr\u00e6der en <em>\u02bfolam<\/em>-gud med funktioner, der ligner Baal-Hammons; ogs\u00e5 her er det n\u00f8jagtige sl\u00e6gtskab omdiskuteret. Religionshistorisk er Baal-Hammon en specifikt vestlig udvikling.<\/p><p>En yderligere etymologisk hypotese forbinder <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> med aram\u00e6isk <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> &#8216;at forbarme sig&#8217;, hvilket ville have en teologisk dybere konnotation; den er dog sprogligt-historisk ikke sikkert underbygget.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Beskrivelse og ikonografi<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon optr\u00e6der i den puniske ikonografi oftest som en tronende, sk\u00e6gget olding med tyrehornskrone, langt foldet kl\u00e6debon og et scepter. Denne billedtradition er talrigt belagt p\u00e5 tofet-stelerne og adskiller ham fra <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/da\/?page_id=138297\">Baal-Hadad<\/a>, der fremst\u00e5r som en ung vejrgud med h\u00e6vet \u00f8kse. Baal-Hammons oldingeprofil forbinder ham teologisk med den ugaritiske El og med Saturnus.<\/p><p>Hans hellige dyr er v\u00e6deren eller bukken; i de puniske offerritualer var v\u00e6deren det foretrukne offerdyr. P\u00e5 enkelte steler optr\u00e6der han flankeret af sfinkser eller griffer.<\/p><p>I Karthago var en kolossal bronzestatue af Baal-Hammon opstillet i byens tempel; den omtales i kilderne om tofet-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Gave til en guddom for at udtrykke tak, b\u00f8n eller tilbedelse.\" tabindex=\"0\">offergaverne<\/span> og siges at have haft mekanismer, der lod offerdyr eller b\u00f8rn falde ned i et ild derunder. Kildekritikken heraf er omdiskuteret og vurderes i dag mere tilbageholdende.<\/p><p>I den hellenistisk-romerske periode smelter Baal-Hammon-ikonografien i stigende grad sammen med Saturnus-traditionen; de senromerske Saturnus-steler fra Nordafrika (3. og 4. \u00e5rhundrede e.Kr.) viser guden som en sk\u00e6gget olding med le, ganske efter Saturnus-forbilledet. Denne Saturnus-Africanus-ikonografi er Marcel Le Glays hovedtema og behandles udf\u00f8rligt i hans monografi.<\/p><p>En imponerende ark\u00e6ologisk kilde er de talrige bronzestatuetter fra tofet, som viser Baal-Hammon tronende med h\u00e6vet h\u00e5nd, en velsignelsesgestus. Disse statuetter blev dels opstillet i tofet selv som offergaver, dels i private hjem.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Mytologiske fort\u00e6llinger<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Selvst\u00e6ndige Baal-Hammon-myter er ikke bevaret; ligesom <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/da\/?page_id=138300\">Tanit<\/a> er han prim\u00e6rt en kultisk-ritual figur. <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Epoke i den gr\u00e6ske og romerske kultur, cirka 800 f.Kr. til 600 e.Kr.\" tabindex=\"0\">Antikke<\/span> kilder (Diodor, Polybios, Plutarch, Tertullian) omtaler b\u00f8rneofre i tofetten som hans vigtigste kulthandling.<\/p><p>Diodor (20.14) beretter udf\u00f8rligt om et stort b\u00f8rneoffer i \u00e5r 310 f.Kr., da Karthago blev belejret af Agathokles af Syrakus; i denne n\u00f8dsituation ofrede man 200 unge m\u00e6nd af fornem herkomst for at formilde gudens vrede.<\/p><p>Historiciteten af disse beretninger har i generationer v\u00e6ret omdiskuteret; de er gr\u00e6sk-romerske polemiske kilder og skal vurderes kritisk. De ark\u00e6ologiske fund fra tofetten bekr\u00e6fter dog, at sp\u00e6db\u00f8rn og sm\u00e5b\u00f8rn blev begravet i betydeligt antal; hvorvidt det altid var som <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Gave til en gud for at udtrykke tak, b\u00f8n eller \u00e6rb\u00f8dighed.\" tabindex=\"0\">offer<\/span> eller ogs\u00e5 naturligt afd\u00f8de, er genstand for tofet-kontroversen.<\/p><p>Augustinus af Hippo polemiserer i <em>De civitate Dei<\/em> 7.19 mod Saturnus-Africanus-kulterne og beskriver b\u00f8rneofre som &#8216;crudelis daemonum cultus&#8217;. Denne <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Overgangsepoke mellem antikken og middelalderen, cirka 3. til 7. \u00e5rhundrede.\" tabindex=\"0\">senantikke<\/span> polemik h\u00f8rer til konstruktionen af det kristne Karthago og skal l\u00e6ses historisk med forsigtighed, men den afspejler den langvarige forbindelse mellem Baal-Hammon og b\u00f8rneoffer-topoi i den antikke opfattelse. Den videnskabelige vurdering af denne praksis er stadig omstridt.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Kult og tilbedelse<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammons vigtigste kultsted var tofeten i Karthago; desuden fandtes tofeter i Motya, Tharros, Sulcis, Hadrumetum, Cirta, Lambafundi og talrige andre steder. P\u00e5 hvert af disse helligsteder var Baal-Hammon hovedmodtager af offergaverne, ofte sammen med <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/da\/?page_id=138300\">Tanit<\/a>. Indskrifterne f\u00f8lger en standardformel: &#8216;Til herren Baal-Hammon, hvad N.N. har lovet, fordi han b\u00f8nh\u00f8rte ham&#8217;.<\/p><p>Derudover fandtes byens Baal-Hammon-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En bygning, der bruges til tilbedelse af \u00e9n eller flere guddomme.\" tabindex=\"0\">templer<\/span>, blandt andet i Thinissut og i selve Karthago (<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En bygning, der bruges til tilbedelse af \u00e9n eller flere guddomme.\" tabindex=\"0\">tempel<\/span> p\u00e5 Byrsa-h\u00f8jen). Sabatino Moscati har dokumenteret den puniske tempelarkitektur i flere publikationer.<\/p><p><span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En bygning, der bruges til tilbedelse af \u00e9n eller flere guddomme.\" tabindex=\"0\">Templerne<\/span> f\u00f8lger et tredelt skema: forg\u00e5rd, hovedsal og det allerhelligste. Indeni stod <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En billedlig fremstilling af en guddom, der tilbedes i tempel eller helligdom.\" tabindex=\"0\">kultbilledet<\/span> eller en &#8216;mazzeba&#8217; (hellig s\u00f8jle), sidstn\u00e6vnte typisk for den f\u00f8nikiske billedl\u00f8shed omkring den h\u00f8jeste <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Et v\u00e6sen, der tilbedes som guddommeligt inden for en religion.\" tabindex=\"0\">guddom<\/span>.<\/p><p>I den romerske kejsertid blev Baal-Hammon fortsat dyrket som Saturnus Africanus; hans <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En bygning, der bruges til tilbedelse af \u00e9n eller flere guddomme.\" tabindex=\"0\">tempel<\/span> i Karthago blev omd\u00f8bt og <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Overdraget til det hellige gennem en religi\u00f8s handling og dermed h\u00e6vet ud af det hverdagslige.\" tabindex=\"0\">indviet<\/span> p\u00e5 ny.<\/p><p>Antallet af Saturnus-stener i Nordafrika overstiger antallet for alle andre romerske guddomme i regionen; Baal-Hammon-Saturnus var frem til det 4. \u00e5rhundrede e.Kr. den vigtigste <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Et v\u00e6sen, der tilbedes som guddommeligt inden for en religion.\" tabindex=\"0\">guddom<\/span> i de afrikanske provinser. Kristningen og vandalernes invasion bragte hans <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Samlingen af religi\u00f8se tilbedelseshandlinger for en guddom eller hellig skikkelse.\" tabindex=\"0\">kult<\/span> til oph\u00f8r.<\/p><p>En vigtig numismatisk kilde er de karthagiske tetradrakmer fra det 4. og 3. \u00e5rhundrede f.Kr., som viser Baal-Hammons tyrehornskrone som beskyttelsesformel p\u00e5 forsiden. M\u00f8ntene blev pr\u00e6get i stort antal til soldudbetaling til de karthagiske h\u00e6re og udbredte Baal-Hammons billedprogram helt til Spanien og Sicilien.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Beskyttelsespraksis og apotrop\u00e6iske elementer<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon var beskyttelsesgud for byen, familien og h\u00f8sten. I de puniske indskrifter fremst\u00e5r han som modtager af <em>n\u0113der<\/em>-l\u00f8fter i n\u00f8dsituationer: f\u00f8r rejser, f\u00f8r slag, ved sygdom, ved f\u00f8dsler. Hyppigheden af hans <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Den bedende eller besv\u00e6rgende tiltale til en guddom eller magt.\" tabindex=\"0\">tilkaldelse<\/span> i private votivgaver viser den intense private religi\u00f8sitet hos den puniske befolkning.<\/p><p>Ved husindgange og i boligrum blev hans symboler brugt <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Ondtafvisende: om tegn og genstande, der skal holde skadelige p\u00e5virkninger p\u00e5 afstand.\" tabindex=\"0\">apotrop\u00e6isk<\/span>: tyrehornskronen, sigden og &#8216;caduceus&#8217;-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Et tegn, der repr\u00e6senterer en forestilling eller betydning.\" tabindex=\"0\">symbolet<\/span>, som i den puniske verden regelm\u00e6ssigt forbindes med Baal-Hammon. Bronzestatuetter af en sk\u00e6gget, tronende gud med tyrehornskrone er fundet i adskillige puniske boligsteder.<\/p><p data-nosnippet=\"true\">Fra et videnskabeligt perspektiv er Baal-Hammons beskyttende funktion st\u00e6rkt forbundet med rigets orden, men ogs\u00e5 forankret personligt og famili\u00e6rt. Tofet-praksissen skal forst\u00e5s som en s\u00e6rlig form for krisereligi\u00f8sitet, uden at den i dag kan tolkes videnskabeligt positivt. iWell Guard registrerer Baal-Hammon som en historisk-religionshistorisk figur uden nutidige helbredelseslovende relationer.<\/p><p>Den n\u00e6re forbindelse mellem Baal-Hammon og den puniske krigsf\u00f8relse er godt dokumenteret; Hannibals ed ved Baal-Hammon-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Oph\u00f8jet sted eller bord til offer og religi\u00f8se handlinger.\" tabindex=\"0\">alteret<\/span> i hans niende leve\u00e5r om at betragte Rom som en evig fjende er en af de mest ber\u00f8mte antikke anekdoter og st\u00e5r i traditionen for de puniske krigsl\u00f8fter.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Paralleller i andre kulturer<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon er historisk besl\u00e6gtet med den ugaritiske El (den gamle fadergud), med den mesopotamiske Anu, med den romerske Saturnus og med den gr\u00e6ske Kronos. Identifikationen med Saturnus er den mest varige; Marcel Le Glay har i <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (1966) vist, at denne synkretisme grundl\u00e6ggende formede den afrikanske Saturnus-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Den samlede m\u00e6ngde af religi\u00f8se dyrkelseshandlinger for en gud eller helligt v\u00e6sen.\" tabindex=\"0\">kult<\/span> i kejsertiden.<\/p><p>Med Kronos deler Baal-Hammon profilen som den \u00e6ldgamle fadergud med associationer til b\u00f8rneofring; den gr\u00e6ske Kronos-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En overleveret fort\u00e6lling om guder, oprindelser og verdens orden.\" tabindex=\"0\">myte<\/span> indeholder det, at han fort\u00e6rer sine egne b\u00f8rn, hvilket i den hellenistiske opfattelse blev forbundet med de karthagiske tofet-ofre. Plutarch (<em>De superstitione<\/em>) g\u00f8r denne forbindelse eksplicit.<\/p><p>Med <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/da\/?page_id=138291\">Kumarbi<\/a> fra <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/da\/?page_id=138241\">den hittitiske tradition<\/a> deler Baal-Hammon typen af den afsatte eller fortr\u00e6ngte fadergud. Religionshistorisk h\u00f8rer han til den internationale familie af gammelmiddelhavske fadergude, hvis funktion delvist blev fortr\u00e6ngt af den yngre generation af stormguder. I den romerske provins Africa Proconsularis forblev denne gammelmiddelhavske tradition us\u00e6dvanligt levende i lang tid.<\/p><p>Forbindelsen mellem Baal-Hammon og den egyptiske Amun-Re blev aktiveret i den hellenistiske periode; oasen Siwa med sit Amun-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Et sted eller en institution, hvor man indhenter et gudeord.\" tabindex=\"0\">orakel<\/span> var let tilg\u00e6ngelig fra Karthago, og nogle kilder beretter om karthagiske pilgrimsrejser derhen. Den historiske betydning af denne synkretisme er omdiskuteret, men bem\u00e6rkelsesv\u00e6rdig.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Nutidig reception og forskning<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon-forskningen er i dag p\u00e5 et h\u00f8jt niveau. Marcel Le Glays <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (1966) er den klassiske standardreference; Sabatino Moscati, Maria Eugenia Aubet, H\u00e9l\u00e8ne B\u00e9nichou-Safar og Lawrence Stager har fremlagt vigtige bidrag til tofet-forskningen. Brian Doaks <em>Phoenician Aniconism<\/em> (2015) behandler den billedl\u00f8se tradition omkring Baal-Hammon. Josephine Quinns studier af punisk identitet har i de senere \u00e5r v\u00e6ret vigtige bidrag.<\/p><p>I den popul\u00e6re opfattelse er Baal-Hammon prim\u00e6rt kendt gennem tofet-kontroversen og den <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Epoke i den gr\u00e6ske og romerske kultur, ca. 800 f.Kr. til 600 e.Kr.\" tabindex=\"0\">antikke<\/span> kristne polemik; billedet er forvr\u00e6nget og g\u00f8r sj\u00e6ldent den videnskabelige indsigt retf\u00e6rdighed. Videnskabeligt mere nuancerede fremstillinger findes i de n\u00e6vnte v\u00e6rker.<\/p><p>Videnskabeligt g\u00e6lder Baal-Hammon i dag som et centralt studieobjekt for den puniske religion, for Saturnus-Africanus-traditionen og for den middelhavsreligionshistorie. Aktuelle forskningsfokusser ligger p\u00e5 den bioark\u00e6ologiske tofet-analyse, p\u00e5 Saturnus-Africanus-stele-traditionen og p\u00e5 sp\u00f8rgsm\u00e5let om berber-komponenten. iWell Guard registrerer ham som et historisk <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Den samlede m\u00e6ngde af guder i en religion eller kultur.\" tabindex=\"0\">pantheon<\/span>-medlem.<\/p><p>Nyere forskning af Josephine Quinn (<em>In Search of the Phoenicians<\/em>, 2018) har diskuteret den puniske identitet og dens religi\u00f8se selvdefinition p\u00e5 ny og sat sp\u00f8rgsm\u00e5lstegn ved Baal-Hammons rolle som &#8216;f\u00f8nikernes gud&#8217;.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Litteratur og kilder<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>F\u00f8lgende udvalg samler de vigtigste standardv\u00e6rker om Baal-Hammon-forskningen. Det omfatter ark\u00e6ologiske rapporter, religionshistoriske syntheser og epigrafiske udgaver. Marcel Le Glays monografi er den klassiske reference; Moscati og Aubet giver den puniske ramme; Doak den ikonologiske vinkel. Quinns nyere studie f\u00f8rer forskningen ind i den kritiske identitetsdiskussion.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp2dce0c7c e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cp2dce0c7c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp22efe76a elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cp22efe76a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Tofetet i Karthago og steleundene<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp207c89a8 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cp207c89a8\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp223f9336 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp223f9336\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Det vigtigste vidnesbyrd om kulten omkring Baal Hammon er ikke en tekst, men et distrikt. Det er tale om det s\u00e5kaldte Tofet i Karthago, et helligsted i udkanten af den antikke by, i det nuv\u00e6rende bykvarter Salammb\u00f4. Det blev udgravet fra 1920&#8217;erne. Afg\u00f8rende var kampagnen ledet af den amerikanske ark\u00e6olog og hendes team i 1970&#8217;erne under navnet &#8220;Punic Project&#8221;.<\/p><p>Distriktet indeholder tusinder af sm\u00e5 urner med br\u00e6ndte rester af sp\u00e6db\u00f8rn og unge dyr, hvorover der er opstillet stenstele.<\/p><p>Mange af disse stele b\u00e6rer votivindskrifter i punisk skrift. Den s\u00e6dvanlige formel n\u00e6vner f\u00f8rst <em>Baal Hammon<\/em> og gudinden <em>Tinnit<\/em> (ofte kaldet &#8220;Tinnit, Baals ansigt&#8221;), derefter stifterens navn og hans \u00e6rinde.<\/p><p>Disse indskrifter er den t\u00e6tteste epigrafiske kilde til punisk religion overhovedet og g\u00f8r Baal Hammon til den bedst dokumenterede karthagiske <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Et v\u00e6sen, der dyrkes som gudeligt inden for en religion.\" tabindex=\"0\">gud<\/span>.<\/p><p>Tolkningen af Tofetet har v\u00e6ret omdiskuteret siden 1800-tallet. <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Epoke i den gr\u00e6ske og romerske kultur, ca. 800 f.Kr. til 600 e.Kr.\" tabindex=\"0\">Antikke<\/span> gr\u00e6ske og romerske forfattere som Diodor og Plutarch beretter om karthagiske b\u00f8rneofre, og en del af forskningen ser i Tofetet den ark\u00e6ologiske bekr\u00e6ftelse heraf.<\/p><p>En modposition, blandt andre repr\u00e6senteret af Sabatino Moscati og senere af andre, tolker distriktet som en gravplads for i forvejen d\u00f8de sm\u00e5b\u00f8rn. Nyere osteologiske unders\u00f8gelser af de br\u00e6ndte knogler har ikke afgjort debatten endeligt. For beskrivelsen af Baal Hammon betyder det: Hans vigtigste kultsted er samtidig det mest omdiskuterede fund i den puniske <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Videnskaben, der udforsker forgangne kulturer gennem materielle fund.\" tabindex=\"0\">ark\u00e6ologi<\/span>.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp2d8c90e4 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cp2d8c90e4\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp239ab422 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cp239ab422\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Interpretatio: Saturn, Kronos og videref\u00f8relsen i romersk tid<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp22113ba9 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cp22113ba9\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp234d4277 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp234d4277\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal Hammon forsvandt ikke med \u00f8del\u00e6ggelsen af Karthago i 146 f.Kr. I det romerske Nordafrika levede han videre under navnet <em>Saturnus Africanus<\/em>, en af de bedst belagte kulter i provinsen Africa.<\/p><p>Hundredvis af Saturn-stelae fra romertiden viser, at den puniske befolkning fortsatte med at tilbede deres gamle hovedgud under romersk navn, med egne ikonografiske tr\u00e6k, blandt andet guden under et sl\u00f8r eller med sigd.<\/p><p>Allerede gr\u00e6kerne havde ligestillet Baal Hammon med <em>Kronos<\/em>, hvilket is\u00e6r spiller en rolle i beretningerne om b\u00f8rneofre, da Kronos fort\u00e6rede sine egne b\u00f8rn.<\/p><p>Romerne valgte derefter Saturn, den latinske modsvarighed til Kronos. Denne <em>interpretatio<\/em> er et tve\u00e6gget v\u00e6rkt\u00f8j for forskningen: Den viser p\u00e5 den ene side kontinuitet, men overlejrer p\u00e5 den anden side den puniske skikkelse med gr\u00e6sk-romerske forestillinger.<\/p><p>Sp\u00f8rgsm\u00e5let om, hvem Baal Hammon oprindeligt var, kan derfor ikke besvares alene med den sene Saturn-ligestilling. Der diskuteres, om tilnavnet <em>Hammon<\/em> henviser til et stednavn, for eksempel det nordsyriske Hamath eller til et bjerg, eller til det semitiske ord for &#8220;gl\u00f8deb\u00e6kken&#8221; eller &#8220;r\u00f8gealter&#8221;.<\/p><p>Eric Gubel, Paolo Xella og andre har arbejdet med disse sp\u00f8rgsm\u00e5l, uden at der er n\u00e5et konsensus. Sikkert er kun, at den romerske Saturn-maske er det yngste, ikke det oprindelige lag af skikkelsen. Om den vestsemitiske <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Et som gudommeligt tilbedt v\u00e6sen inden for en religion.\" tabindex=\"0\">gud<\/span> med samme navnestamme, se ogs\u00e5 <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/da\/?page_id=138303\">Yam<\/a> i det ugaritiske <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Den samlede skare af guder i en religion eller kultur.\" tabindex=\"0\">pantheon<\/span>.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-lit e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-lit\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-lith elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-lith\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Litteratur (udvalg)<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-litc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-litc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-litt elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-litt\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div data-nosnippet=\"true\"><ul><li>Marcel Le Glay: <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (Paris 1966)<\/li><li>Sabatino Moscati: <em>Il mondo dei Fenici<\/em> (Milano 1966)<\/li><li>Maria Eugenia Aubet: <em>The Phoenicians and the West<\/em> (Cambridge 2001)<\/li><li>H\u00e9l\u00e8ne B\u00e9nichou-Safar: <em>Le tophet de Salammb\u00f4 \u00e0 Carthage<\/em> (Rom 2004)<\/li><li>Brian Doak: <em>Phoenician Aniconism<\/em> (Atlanta 2015)<\/li><li>Josephine Quinn: <em>In Search of the Phoenicians<\/em> (Princeton 2018)<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgkw2-add-baalhammon e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgkw2-add-baalhammon\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgkw2-add-baalhammon-t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgkw2-add-baalhammon-t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon fremst\u00e5r som den puniske-karthagiske hovedgud, hvis tofet-helligdomme i Karthago dokumenterer hans stilling som \u00f8verste beskyttelsesgud; i den romerske periode tilbedes han videre som Saturnus Africanus.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-kwd e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-kwd\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-kwdc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-kwdc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-kwdt elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-kwdt\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><em>Relaterede n\u00f8glebegreber: Baal-Hammon Karthago Punisk Saturnus Tofet B\u00f8rneofre Africana.<\/em><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-cc e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-cc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" id=\"iwg-cc-baal-hammon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccinner e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-ccinner\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-cch elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-cch\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">iWell Guard og beskyttelsestraditioner<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-cct elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-cct\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div data-nosnippet=\"true\"><p>iWell Guard knytter sig til den kulturhistoriske tradition for b\u00e6rbare beskyttelsesobjekter, i traditionen fra <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/da\/?page_id=138242\">F\u00f8nikisk<\/a> og mange andre kulturer verden over. 41 lag, \u00e6gte guld, platin, s\u00f8lv, fremstillet i Tyskland. 30 dages returret.<\/p><\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb iwg-cc-button iwg-cc-cta-2026-05-13 elementor-widget elementor-widget-jet-button\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-ccb\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"jet-button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-jet-button jet-elements\"><div class=\"jet-button__container\"><a class=\"jet-button__instance jet-button__instance--icon-left hover-effect-1\" href=\"\/ueber-iwell-guard\/?utm_source=iwell-guard.com&amp;utm_medium=info-box&amp;utm_campaign=wesen-tradition\"><div class=\"jet-button__plane jet-button__plane-normal\"><\/div><div class=\"jet-button__plane jet-button__plane-hover\"><\/div><div class=\"jet-button__state jet-button__state-normal\"><span class=\"jet-button__label\">Mere om iWell Guard<\/span><\/div><div class=\"jet-button__state jet-button__state-hover\"><span class=\"jet-button__label\">Mere om iWell Guard<\/span><\/div><\/a><\/div><\/div><style>.elementor-element.elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb .jet-button__instance{width:320px;height:56px;}.elementor-element.elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb .jet-button__state-normal .jet-button__label{text-align:center;margin:0px 0px 0px 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data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div data-nosnippet=\"true\"><p style=\"text-align:center;font-size:13px;opacity:0.7;margin-top:14px\" data-nosnippet=\"true\">Personlige erfaringer kan variere. Ikke et medicinsk produkt. Intet helbredelsesl\u00f8fte.<\/p><\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-disc e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-disc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-discw elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-discw\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<footer data-nosnippet=\"true\" class=\"iwg-disclaimer-block\"><p data-nosnippet=\"true\">iWell Guard er <strong>ikke et medicinsk produkt<\/strong> og erstatter ikke l\u00e6ge- eller psykoterapeutisk behandling. De religionsvidenskabelige indhold er en kulturhistorisk indplacering, ikke en anbefaling af spirituel praksis.<\/p><\/footer>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":2848,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"elementor_header_footer","meta":{"_yoast_wpseo_focuskw":"Baal-Hammon Karthago hovedgud","_yoast_wpseo_title":"Baal-Hammon \u2013 Karthago hovedgud, Tofet, Saturnus","_yoast_wpseo_metadesc":"Baal-Hammon er den \u00f8verste mandlige gud i Karthago, gemal til Tanit og modtager af tofet-offergaverne. Religionsvidenskabelig indplacering.","_yoast_wpseo_meta-robots-noindex":"","_yoast_wpseo_canonical":"","_angie_page":false,"gefaehrdungsstufe":"2","wesen_kultur":"phoenizisch","wesen_klasse":"goetter","footnotes":""},"categories":[],"class_list":["post-138301","page","type-page","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v27.7 (Yoast SEO v28.3) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-premium-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Baal-Hammon \u2013 Karthago hovedgud, Tofet, Saturnus<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Baal-Hammon er den \u00f8verste mandlige gud i Karthago, gemal til Tanit og modtager af tofet-offergaverne. 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