{"id":171846,"date":"2026-09-05T15:42:57","date_gmt":"2026-09-05T15:42:57","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/?page_id=171846"},"modified":"2026-09-05T16:08:44","modified_gmt":"2026-09-05T16:08:44","slug":"buda-gautama","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/ca\/buda-gautama\/","title":{"rendered":"Buda (Gautama)"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"171846\" class=\"elementor elementor-171846 elementor-3035 elementor-bc-flex-widget\" data-elementor-post-type=\"page\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f92b4fb e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"f92b4fb\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b3d5d5a e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"b3d5d5a\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c3046ee e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"c3046ee\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-bf4012a elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"bf4012a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Buda Gautama, fundador del budisme<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-fb2232c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"fb2232c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Siddharta Gautama \u00e9s, com a persona hist\u00f2rica, el fundador del budisme. Des del punt de vista de la ci\u00e8ncia de la religi\u00f3, cal distingir entre la figura biogr\u00e0ficament documentable i la posterior reelaboraci\u00f3 mitico-religiosa.<\/p><p>Mentre que alguns punts clau de la seva activitat es poden situar al nord-est de l&#8217;\u00cdndia del segle V abans de la nostra era, la seva biografia en els textos can\u00f2nics ja apareix fortament configurada en clau hagiogr\u00e0fica. Per aix\u00f2, la investigaci\u00f3 actual segueix una doble lectura que tracta per separat la plausibilitat hist\u00f2rica i l&#8217;atribuci\u00f3 de significat religi\u00f3s.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f5797f3 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"f5797f3\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8f2e7e8 elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"8f2e7e8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"iwg-pill-row\"><span class=\"iwg-klasse-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"D\u00e9u \/ Deessa: Poder suprem personificat en el pante\u00f3 d'una cultura, amb compet\u00e8ncies clares \u2014 forces de la natura, dest\u00ed, guerra, fertilitat. Venerat mitjan\u00e7ant cultes, ofrenes i institucions de temple.\">D\u00e9u<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/ca\/budisme\/\" class=\"iwg-kultur-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Tradici\u00f3 budista amb bodhisattvas, divinitats protectores, esperits famolencs i guardians dels inferns.\">Budisme<\/a><\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8e27734 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"8e27734\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-000570b elementor-toc--minimized-on-tablet elementor-widget elementor-widget-table-of-contents\" data-id=\"000570b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;exclude_headings_by_selector&quot;:[],&quot;no_headings_message&quot;:&quot;No s&#039;ha trobat cap encap\\u00e7alament en aquesta p\\u00e0gina.&quot;,&quot;headings_by_tags&quot;:[&quot;h2&quot;,&quot;h3&quot;],&quot;marker_view&quot;:&quot;bullets&quot;,&quot;icon&quot;:{&quot;value&quot;:&quot;fas fa-circle&quot;,&quot;library&quot;:&quot;fa-solid&quot;,&quot;rendered_tag&quot;:&quot;&lt;svg class=\\&quot;e-font-icon-svg e-fas-circle\\&quot; viewBox=\\&quot;0 0 512 512\\&quot; xmlns=\\&quot;http:\\\/\\\/www.w3.org\\\/2000\\\/svg\\&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=\\&quot;M256 8C119 8 8 119 8 256s111 248 248 248 248-111 248-248S393 8 256 8z\\&quot;&gt;&lt;\\\/path&gt;&lt;\\\/svg&gt;&quot;},&quot;minimize_box&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;minimized_on&quot;:&quot;tablet&quot;,&quot;hierarchical_view&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;min_height&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"table-of-contents.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__header\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-toc__header-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\u00cdndex\t\t\t<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--expand\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__000570b\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Open table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-down\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M207.029 381.476L12.686 187.132c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941l22.667-22.667c9.357-9.357 24.522-9.375 33.901-.04L224 284.505l154.745-154.021c9.379-9.335 24.544-9.317 33.901.04l22.667 22.667c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941L240.971 381.476c-9.373 9.372-24.569 9.372-33.942 0z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--collapse\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__000570b\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Close table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M240.971 130.524l194.343 194.343c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941l-22.667 22.667c-9.357 9.357-24.522 9.375-33.901.04L224 227.495 69.255 381.516c-9.379 9.335-24.544 9.317-33.901-.04l-22.667-22.667c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941L207.03 130.525c9.372-9.373 24.568-9.373 33.941-.001z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-toc__000570b\" class=\"elementor-toc__body\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__spinner-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<svg class=\"elementor-toc__spinner eicon-animation-spin e-font-icon-svg e-eicon-loading\" aria-hidden=\"true\" viewBox=\"0 0 1000 1000\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M500 975V858C696 858 858 696 858 500S696 142 500 142 142 304 142 500H25C25 237 238 25 500 25S975 237 975 500 763 975 500 975Z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b7de5d7 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"b7de5d7\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7b33f15 iwg-hero-image elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"7b33f15\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"683\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_buddhismus_buddha-gautama-683x1024.webp\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-173435\" alt=\"Buda Gautama: d\u00e9us de la tradici\u00f3 budista, il\u00b7lustraci\u00f3 historicocultural\" srcset=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_buddhismus_buddha-gautama-683x1024.webp 683w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_buddhismus_buddha-gautama-200x300.webp 200w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_buddhismus_buddha-gautama-768x1152.webp 768w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_buddhismus_buddha-gautama.webp 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 683px) 100vw, 683px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2fa2568 e-con-boxed e-flex e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"2fa2568\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-46c540b e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"46c540b\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-29a8204 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"29a8204\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Persona hist\u00f2rica i dataci\u00f3<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-36e800d elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"36e800d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Durant molt temps, l&#8217;anomenada \u00abcronologia llarga\u00bb, amb les dates de refer\u00e8ncia del 563 al 483 abans de la nostra era, va ser considerada l&#8217;est\u00e0ndard.<\/p><p>Heinz Bechert, a partir dels anys 1980, en diversos volums (\u00abDie Datierung des historischen Buddha\u00bb, G\u00f6ttingen 1991\u20131997), va reavaluar cr\u00edticament les fonts i va refor\u00e7ar els indicis a favor d&#8217;una \u00abcronologia curta\u00bb, amb dates de vida situades entre el 480 i el 400 abans de la nostra era.<\/p><p>Des de llavors, la investigaci\u00f3 internacional tendeix a situar la data de la mort entre el 410 i el 380 abans de la nostra era. Hans Wolfgang Schumann (\u00abDer historische Buddha\u00bb, Col\u00f2nia 1982) havia defensat anteriorment les dates m\u00e9s llargues.<\/p><p>Aquest debat no est\u00e0 tancat, per\u00f2 ha mostrat metodol\u00f2gicament que la dataci\u00f3 dep\u00e8n de la cronologia dels reis maurya, especialment d&#8217;Ashoka, i per tant \u00e9s relativa i no absolutament segura.<\/p>\n<p>Es considera nucli biogr\u00e0fic: Siddharta va n\u00e9ixer al territori tribal dels shakya, a Lumbini, a l&#8217;extrem sud de l&#8217;Him\u00e0laia; el seu pare Suddhodana era un arist\u00f2crata o un cap tribal escollit, no pas un monarca hereditari en el sentit posterior. Lumbini es troba a l&#8217;actual Nepal, prop de la frontera \u00edndia.<\/p><p>La identificaci\u00f3 del lloc es basa en la columna d&#8217;Ashoka de Lumbini, erigida al segle III abans de la nostra era, que indica el lloc de naixement per nom. Klaus-Josef Notz (\u00abBuddhismus\u00bb, Stuttgart 2002) valora aquesta <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un text gravat o esculpit en un suport fix.\" tabindex=\"0\">inscripci\u00f3<\/span> com el testimoni arqueol\u00f2gic m\u00e9s antic que vincula el Buda amb un lloc concret.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-15053dd e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"15053dd\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f7ece3a elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"f7ece3a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">La biografia en el C\u00e0non Pali<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c25552a elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"c25552a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>La font can\u00f2nica m\u00e9s detallada sobre el final de la seva vida \u00e9s el Mahaparinibbana-Sutta (Digha Nikaya 16). Descriu els darrers mesos, el viatge de Rajagriha a Kushinagara i la mort entre dos arbres sala. Es considera un text de composici\u00f3 complexa, que combina una cr\u00f2nica de viatge amb sermons doctrinals i una descripci\u00f3 dels ritus funeraris.<\/p><p>Altres textos, com l&#8217;Ariyapariyesana-Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 26), narren en primera persona la cerca del coneixement, la sortida de la llar familiar i la ruptura amb els mestres ascetes Alara Kalama i Uddaka Ramaputta.<\/p><p>El Lalitavistara, un text en s\u00e0nscrit dels segles III a IV de la nostra era, amplia aquests relats fins a convertir-los en una hagiografia adornada amb prodigis c\u00f2smics.<\/p>\n<p>Les famoses \u00abquatre sortides\u00bb, en qu\u00e8 el jove Siddharta veu un vell, un malalt, un mort i un asc\u00e8tic errant, no estan documentades en aquesta forma tancada en els estrats m\u00e9s antics del c\u00e0non.<\/p><p>Condensen un <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un element de contingut recurrent en l'art o en la narrativa.\" tabindex=\"0\">motiu<\/span> teol\u00f2gic que interpreta la confrontaci\u00f3 amb la imperman\u00e8ncia com a desencadenant de la partida. Edward Conze (\u00abDer Buddhismus\u00bb, Stuttgart 1953) va assenyalar que es tracta d&#8217;una composici\u00f3 narrativa que recull patrons narratius m\u00e9s antics de la literatura asc\u00e8tica prebudista.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5e46ce5 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"5e46ce5\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-604c3f5 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"604c3f5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Doctrina i Quatre Nobles Veritats<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2d6a375 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"2d6a375\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>El serm\u00f3 de Sarnath, el Dhammacakkappavattana-Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya 56.11), formula les quatre \u00abNobles Veritats\u00bb: l&#8217;exist\u00e8ncia est\u00e0 marcada pel sofriment (dukkha), el sofriment t\u00e9 una causa en el desig (tanha), el cessament del sofriment \u00e9s possible (nirodha), i hi ha un cam\u00ed per arribar-hi, el cam\u00ed de vuit branques (atthangika-magga).<\/p><p>Les vuit branques s\u00f3n: recta visi\u00f3, recta determinaci\u00f3, recta paraula, recta acci\u00f3, recta manera de viure, recte esfor\u00e7, recta atenci\u00f3 i recta concentraci\u00f3. Aquesta estructura est\u00e0 documentada diverses vegades en el <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"El conjunt de textos sagrats d'una religi\u00f3 reconeguts com a vinculants.\" tabindex=\"0\">c\u00e0non<\/span> i es considera el nucli doctrinal sistem\u00e0tic m\u00e9s antic que es pot atribuir de manera plausible al Buda hist\u00f2ric.<\/p>\n<p>Volker Zotz (\u00abGeschichte der buddhistischen Philosophie\u00bb, Reinbek 1996) situa les Quatre Veritats en la diagn\u00f2stica m\u00e8dica de l&#8217;antiga \u00cdndia: s\u00edmptoma, causa, curabilitat, ter\u00e0pia. Aquest rerefons m\u00e8dic es fa expl\u00edcit diverses vegades en el <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"El conjunt de textos sagrats d'una religi\u00f3 reconeguts com a vinculants.\" tabindex=\"0\">C\u00e0non Pali<\/span>, per exemple quan el Buda es defineix a si mateix com a \u00abmetge\u00bb. La doctrina, per tant, no t\u00e9 un car\u00e0cter especulatiu, sin\u00f3 que est\u00e0 orientada cap a l&#8217;alliberament pr\u00e0ctic.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ace9927 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"ace9927\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4b024d2 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"4b024d2\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">El sangha i l'activitat docent<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-960cc77 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"960cc77\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Despr\u00e9s de la il\u00b7luminaci\u00f3 a Bodh Gaya, va comen\u00e7ar una activitat docent de 45 anys, centrada en els territoris de Magadha, Kosala i Videha. Les comunitats mon\u00e0stiques m\u00e9s antigues es van formar a Sarnath, Rajagriha (el <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Una arbreda sagrada que servia de lloc de culte.\" tabindex=\"0\">bosc<\/span> de Veluvana) i Shravasti (el <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Una arbreda sagrada que servia de lloc de culte.\" tabindex=\"0\">bosc<\/span> de Jetavana). Aquest darrer va ser, segons la tradici\u00f3, donat a l&#8217;orde pel comerciant Anathapindika.<\/p><p>El sangha es dividia en quatre grups: monjos (bhikkhu), monges (bhikkhuni), i seguidors laics masculins i femenins. L&#8217;admissi\u00f3 de dones, propiciada per Ananda i la mare adoptiva Mahapajapati, es narra al Cullavagga (Vinaya-Pitaka). La investigaci\u00f3 hi veu un pas inusual per a la hist\u00f2ria religiosa de l&#8217;antiga \u00cdndia, encara que la seva fiabilitat hist\u00f2rica \u00e9s discutida.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8264d71 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"8264d71\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f189522 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"f189522\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">S\u00edmbols, iconografia i rel\u00edquies<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c452567 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"c452567\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>L&#8217;art budista m\u00e9s primerenc, com els relleus de Sanchi i Bharhut (segles II a I abans de la nostra era), no coneix cap representaci\u00f3 antropom\u00f2rfica del Buda.<\/p><p>El mestre \u00e9s simbolitzat mitjan\u00e7ant trons buits, petjades, la roda de la doctrina (dharmacakra), l&#8217;arbre de Bodhi i l&#8217;stupa. No \u00e9s fins a l&#8217;escola de Gandhara, entre els segles I i III de la nostra era, influ\u00efda per l&#8217;escultura hel\u00b7len\u00edstica, que es desenvolupa la iconografia de forma humana.<\/p><p>Els trenta-dos \u00abtrets principals\u00bb (mahapurusalaksana) dels textos posteriors, entre ells l&#8217;ushnisha (protuber\u00e0ncia cranial), l&#8217;urna (p\u00e8l al front), els l\u00f2buls de les orelles allargats i les empremtes de lotus a les plantes dels peus, formalitzen la representaci\u00f3. Els gestos de les mans (mudra) codifiquen situacions d&#8217;ensenyament: el toc de la terra (bhumisparsha), el gest de la impertorbabilitat (abhaya), el de la doctrina (dharmacakra) i el de l&#8217;absorci\u00f3 meditativa (dhyana).<\/p>\n<p>Despr\u00e9s del parinirvana, les cendres i les restes \u00f2ssies es van repartir entre vuit regnes i es van dipositar en stupes. Es diu que Ashoka, al segle III abans de la nostra era, va tornar a obrir aquestes stupes i va repartir les rel\u00edquies entre 84.000 noves construccions.<\/p><p>Aquesta xifra \u00e9s simb\u00f2lica, per\u00f2 les troballes arqueol\u00f2giques apunten a una expansi\u00f3 considerable del culte a l&#8217;stupa sota els Maurya.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c038d14 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"c038d14\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a4b57e5 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"a4b57e5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Efecte i sobreposici\u00f3 religiosa<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c398bad elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"c398bad\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>En el budisme mahayana, que sorgeix a partir del segle I abans de la nostra era, al costat del Buda hist\u00f2ric apareix una doctrina \u00abde tres cossos\u00bb (trikaya): el cos de transformaci\u00f3 (nirmanakaya), en el qual Siddhartha va apar\u00e8ixer com a persona hist\u00f2rica, el cos de gaudi (sambhogakaya) i el cos del <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En les religions \u00edndies, la doctrina i l'ordre correcte de l'acci\u00f3.\" tabindex=\"0\">Dharma<\/span> (dharmakaya) com a veritat atemporal.<\/p><p>En el Saddharmapundarika-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En l'hinduisme i el budisme, un text doctrinal en forma concisa.\" tabindex=\"0\">Sutra<\/span> (Sutra del Lotus, cap al segle I de la nostra era), Shakyamuni \u00e9s nom\u00e9s una forma de manifestaci\u00f3 d&#8217;un \u00e9sser il\u00b7luminat des de temps immemorials. Donald Lopez (\u00abThe Story of Buddhism\u00bb, San Francisco 2001) descriu aquest despla\u00e7ament com una generalitzaci\u00f3 pr\u00f2pia de la hist\u00f2ria de les religions, en la qual la persona individual esdev\u00e9 una funci\u00f3 c\u00f2smica.<\/p>\n<p>Robert Buswell i Donald Lopez (\u00abPrinceton Dictionary of Buddhism\u00bb, Princeton 2014) mostren que la recerca hist\u00f2rico-cr\u00edtica sobre Buda i la veneraci\u00f3 religiosa de Buda al budisme asi\u00e0tic modern discorren en gran part en paral\u00b7lel.<\/p><p>Els debats occidentals acad\u00e8mics sobre la dataci\u00f3, com el de Bechert, gaireb\u00e9 no han trobat ress\u00f2 fins ara en els monestirs tradicionals de Sri Lanka, Tail\u00e0ndia o el Tibet. Des del punt de vista cient\u00edfic, aquesta tensi\u00f3 \u00e9s en si mateixa objecte de recerca i porta a preguntar-se com es relacionen la realitat biogr\u00e0fica i el significat religi\u00f3s en la transmissi\u00f3 de la tradici\u00f3.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7fea99b e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"7fea99b\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0e63532 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"0e63532\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Recepci\u00f3 a Europa<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b3bde59 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b3bde59\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>El coneixement europeu del Buda comen\u00e7a amb traduccions del pali i el s\u00e0nscrit al segle XIX. Eug\u00e8ne Burnouf va posar els fonaments amb \u00abIntroduction \u00e0 l&#8217;histoire du buddhisme indien\u00bb (Par\u00eds 1844). Hermann Oldenberg va unir filologia i hist\u00f2ria de les religions amb \u00abBuddha. Sein Leben, seine Lehre, seine Gemeinde\u00bb (Berl\u00edn 1881).<\/p><p>Schopenhauer va rebre motius budistes de segona m\u00e0 i, aix\u00ed, va exercir influ\u00e8ncia molt m\u00e9s enll\u00e0 de l&#8217;indologia acad\u00e8mica. Al segle XX, el monjo theravad\u00ed Nyanatiloka (Anton Gueth) marca la doctrina del Buda de parla alemanya mitjan\u00e7ant traduccions sistem\u00e0tiques del pali. Aquesta l\u00ednia continua influint fins a la reflexi\u00f3 acad\u00e8mica i de pr\u00e0ctica meditativa actual.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ffc6968 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"ffc6968\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-73c461c elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"73c461c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Fonts i bibliografia complement\u00e0ria<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8545b4c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"8545b4c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<footer class=\"iwg-literatur\"><div data-nosnippet=\"true\"><p>Fonts prim\u00e0ries: Mahaparinibbana-Sutta (Digha Nikaya 16); Ariyapariyesana-Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 26); Dhammacakkappavattana-Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya 56.11); Vinaya-Pitaka, Cullavagga; Lalitavistara; Saddharmapundarika-<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"En l'hinduisme i el budisme, un text doctrinal en forma concisa.\" tabindex=\"0\">Sutra<\/span> (Sutra del Lotus).<\/p>\n<p>Bibliografia secund\u00e0ria:<\/p><ul><li>Heinz Bechert (ed.), \u00abDie Datierung des historischen Buddha\u00bb, 3 volums, G\u00f6ttingen 1991 a 1997.<\/li><li>Hans Wolfgang Schumann, \u00abDer historische Buddha\u00bb, Col\u00f2nia 1982.<\/li><li>Klaus-Josef Notz, \u00abBuddhismus\u00bb, Stuttgart 2002.<\/li><li>Volker Zotz, \u00abGeschichte der buddhistischen Philosophie\u00bb, Reinbek 1996.<\/li><li>Edward Conze, \u00abDer Buddhismus\u00bb, Stuttgart 1953.<\/li><li>Donald Lopez, \u00abThe Story of Buddhism\u00bb, San Francisco 2001.<\/li><li>Robert Buswell i Donald Lopez, \u00abPrinceton Dictionary of Buddhism\u00bb, Princeton 2014.<\/li><li>Hermann Oldenberg, \u00abBuddha.<\/li><\/ul><p>Sein Leben, seine Lehre, seine Gemeinde\u00bb (La seva vida, la seva doctrina, la seva comunitat), Berl\u00edn 1881.<\/p><\/div><\/footer>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e4c2b84 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"e4c2b84\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ff18585 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"ff18585\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Primera comunitat mon\u00e0stica i formaci\u00f3 d'escoles<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5f3a5d2 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"5f3a5d2\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>L&#8217;activitat docent del Buda va portar, ja en vida seva, a la formaci\u00f3 d&#8217;una comunitat relativament heterog\u00e8nia. Ja dins de la primera generaci\u00f3 posterior al parinirvana es van perfilar diferents pr\u00e0ctiques d&#8217;interpretaci\u00f3, que en l&#8217;anomenat segon concili de Vaishali (aproximadament 100 anys despr\u00e9s del parinirvana) van donar lloc a una primera escissi\u00f3.<\/p><p>Els theravadins (\u00abmestres dels ancians\u00bb) i els mahasanghikas (\u00abgran comunitat\u00bb) es van separar; els punts de disc\u00f2rdia afectaven deu q\u00fcestions disciplin\u00e0ries, entre elles el tractament dels diners i la interpretaci\u00f3 de les regles del Vinaya.<\/p><p>Dels mahasanghikas van sorgir, al llarg de diversos segles, les formes preliminars del mahayana, mentre que la l\u00ednia theravada es va consolidar sobretot a Sri Lanka. Heinz Bechert ha mostrat en diversos articles que aquesta escissi\u00f3 escolar primerenca afecta metodol\u00f2gicament el problema m\u00e9s important de dataci\u00f3 de la hist\u00f2ria budista primerenca, ja que proporciona un punt de refer\u00e8ncia relatiu per a les dates de vida del Buda.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-acb2de5 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"acb2de5\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8bc2480 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"8bc2480\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Els pilars d'Ashoka com a marcadors hist\u00f2rics<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4773f11 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"4773f11\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Les inscripcions de l&#8217;emperador Maurya Ashoka (que va regnar aproximadament del 268 al 232 abans de la nostra era) s\u00f3n els testimonis hist\u00f2rics indiscutits m\u00e9s antics de la hist\u00f2ria budista.<\/p><p>Hi anomenen el Buda pel seu nom, descriuen pelegrinatges als seus llocs de naixement i d&#8217;ensenyament, i documenten el patrocini imperial del Sangha. La columna de Lumbini (<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un text gravat o esculpit en un suport s\u00f2lid.\" tabindex=\"0\">inscripci\u00f3<\/span> de Rummindei, 250 abans de la nostra era) marca el lloc de naixement.<\/p><p>Una altra <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un text gravat o esculpit en un suport s\u00f2lid.\" tabindex=\"0\">inscripci\u00f3<\/span> a Nigali Sagar fa refer\u00e8ncia a un Buda anterior anomenat Konagamana, la qual cosa mostra que Ashoka ja estava interessat en una s\u00e8rie de Budes en la qual s&#8217;insereix Shakyamuni.<\/p><p>Aquestes inscripcions s\u00f3n metodol\u00f2gicament centrals perqu\u00e8 demostren amb seguretat l&#8217;exist\u00e8ncia d&#8217;una comunitat budista organitzada i d&#8217;una geografia b\u00fadica al segle III abans de la nostra era. Amb aix\u00f2 queda tamb\u00e9 assegurada l&#8217;exist\u00e8ncia del Buda com a persona hist\u00f2rica abans d&#8217;aquesta data, encara que sense fixar amb precisi\u00f3 el per\u00edode de la seva vida.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c00e2b0 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"c00e2b0\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-66ed5a9 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"66ed5a9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">L'ensenyament del Buda sobre els d\u00e9us<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-55b6ffc elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"55b6ffc\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Una q\u00fcesti\u00f3 sovint subestimada en la recerca moderna \u00e9s l&#8217;actitud del Buda envers els d\u00e9us (deva) de la tradici\u00f3 v\u00e8dica. El <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"El recull reconegut com a vinculant de les escriptures sagrades d'una religi\u00f3.\" tabindex=\"0\">c\u00e0non<\/span> pali no presenta els d\u00e9us com a inexistents, sin\u00f3 que els situa en un cosmos jer\u00e0rquicament organitzat, en el qual tamb\u00e9 ells estan sotmesos al renaixement i, per tant, al sofriment.<\/p><p>Indra (en pali, Sakka), Brahma, les divinitats inferiors i els \u00e9ssers dels mons superiors apareixen diverses vegades al <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"El recull reconegut com a vinculant de les escriptures sagrades d'una religi\u00f3.\" tabindex=\"0\">c\u00e0non<\/span> com a interlocutors del Buda.<\/p><p>No li s\u00f3n superiors, sin\u00f3 que el reconeixen com el seu mestre. Aquesta relaci\u00f3 \u00e9s peculiar des del punt de vista de la fenomenologia religiosa: el budisme no \u00e9s ni ateista ni teista en el sentit habitual. Klaus-Josef Notz ha descrit aquesta constel\u00b7laci\u00f3 a \u00abBuddhismus\u00bb com una \u00abreligi\u00f3 atea amb m\u00f3n de d\u00e9us\u00bb. Els d\u00e9us tenen funcions, per\u00f2 no s\u00f3n referents \u00faltims.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a3b1717 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"a3b1717\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1e64bc6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"1e64bc6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">El Vinaya i l'orde mon\u00e0stic<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5dbfa07 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"5dbfa07\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Les regles disciplin\u00e0ries (Vinaya) que ordenen la vida quotidiana de monjos i monges es fan remuntar al mateix Buda. En realitat, el Vinaya-Pitaka \u00e9s una col\u00b7lecci\u00f3 formada per capes successives, el nucli m\u00e9s antic de la qual es remunta al per\u00edode d&#8217;ensenyament del Buda. Les 227 regles Patimokkha per als monjos (311 per a les monges) regulen la vestimenta, l&#8217;alimentaci\u00f3, l&#8217;habitatge, l&#8217;abstin\u00e8ncia sexual i la relaci\u00f3 amb els laics.<\/p><p>Es reciten dues vegades al mes en l&#8217;assemblea Uposatha, la qual cosa garanteix una consci\u00e8ncia cont\u00ednua de la disciplina. Aquesta pr\u00e0ctica est\u00e0 documentada de manera continuada des del segle III abans de la nostra era i constitueix, per tant, una de les formes de disciplina religiosa m\u00e9s antigues del m\u00f3n.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-99198a5 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"99198a5\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d3c9f48 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"d3c9f48\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Els primers concilis i la codificaci\u00f3 de l'ensenyament<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3f2749d elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"3f2749d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Immediatament despr\u00e9s del Parinirvana, segons la <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"La transmissi\u00f3 de coneixements i relats al llarg de generacions.\" tabindex=\"0\">tradici\u00f3<\/span>, es va celebrar a Rajagriha el primer concili budista, convocat per Mahakassapa. Ananda va recitar els discursos (Sutta-Pitaka) i Upali les regles disciplin\u00e0ries (Vinaya-Pitaka).<\/p><p>Aquesta tradici\u00f3 es transmet al Cullavagga. \u00c9tienne Lamotte (\u00abHistoire du bouddhisme indien\u00bb, Louvain 1958) valora la tradici\u00f3 conciliar com un relat de legitimaci\u00f3 posterior, que cont\u00e9, tot i aix\u00ed, un nucli hist\u00f2ricament plausible: la fixaci\u00f3 de l&#8217;ensenyament transm\u00e8s oralment mitjan\u00e7ant recitacions estandarditzades.<\/p><p>El segon concili, a Vaishali (cap al 380 abans de la nostra era), va tractar deu punts disciplinaris controvertits. El tercer concili, a Pataliputra sota Ashoka (cap al 250 abans de la nostra era), es considera en la tradici\u00f3 theravada com el tancament de la canonitzaci\u00f3 del Tipitaka.<\/p><p>El llinatge mahasanghika no reconeix aquesta tercera assemblea en aquesta forma, el qual cosa evidencia ja en una fase primerenca l&#8217;exist\u00e8ncia d&#8217;una historiografia pr\u00f2pia de cada escola.<\/p>\n<p>La fixaci\u00f3 escrita definitiva del c\u00e0non pali no es va produir fins a Sri Lanka, sota el rei Vattagamani Abhaya, al segle I abans de la nostra era. En el quart concili, a Aluvihara, els textos es van escriure per primera vegada sobre fulles de palma.<\/p><p>Aquesta cesura \u00e9s rellevant des del punt de vista de la hist\u00f2ria de les religions, ja que marca el pas d&#8217;una cultura purament memorial a una cultura escrita. Fins llavors, grups mon\u00e0stics especialitzats (bhanaka) havien transm\u00e8s de mem\u00f2ria grups espec\u00edfics de textos.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-adc2a29 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"adc2a29\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-48c6626 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"48c6626\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">El Buda en comparaci\u00f3 amb els mestres contemporanis<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-26118f8 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"26118f8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>El Buda va viure i actuar en una fase de pluralisme religi\u00f3s, descrita al <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"El recull reconegut com a vinculant de les escriptures sagrades d'una religi\u00f3.\" tabindex=\"0\">c\u00e0non<\/span> pali com el temps dels \u00absis altres mestres\u00bb. Entre ells hi havia Mahavira, fundador del jainisme, Makkhali Gosala (ajivika), Purana Kassapa, Pakudha Kaccayana, Ajita Kesakambali i Sanjaya Belatthiputta. El Samannaphala-Sutta (Digha Nikaya 2) ofereix una presentaci\u00f3 comparativa dels seus ensenyaments.<\/p><p>La recerca ha analitzat aquestes fonts per reconstruir el perfil intel\u00b7lectual de l&#8217;\u00e8poca axial a l&#8217;\u00cdndia. Karl Jaspers va situar aquesta constel\u00b7laci\u00f3, en la seva obra \u00abVom Ursprung und Ziel der Geschichte\u00bb (1949), dins l&#8217;\u00e8poca axial global, en la qual van sorgir simult\u00e0niament nous moviments filos\u00f2fics a la Xina, l&#8217;\u00cdndia, l&#8217;Iran i Gr\u00e8cia.<\/p>\n<p>La proximitat amb Mahavira \u00e9s especialment notable. Tots dos van ensenyar a la mateixa regi\u00f3, tots dos van reclutar seguidors de l&#8217;aristocr\u00e0cia ksh\u00e0triya, tots dos van criticar el culte v\u00e8dic al sacrifici. Padmanabh Jaini (\u00abThe Jaina Path of Purification\u00bb, Berkeley 1979) ha analitzat sistem\u00e0ticament les similituds i difer\u00e8ncies.<\/p><p>Mentre que els jainistes defensaven una ascesi estricta i una doctrina del karma quasi material, el Buda va formular un \u00abcam\u00ed del mig\u00bb entre el plaer sensorial i l&#8217;automortificaci\u00f3, i va substituir la doctrina substancial de l&#8217;\u00e0nima pel principi de l&#8217;anatta.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-331b0f1 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"331b0f1\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-81e52c7 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"81e52c7\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Els dotze motius principals de la hagiografia del Buda<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-189913c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"189913c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>La hagiografia posterior va condensar la vida del Buddha en dotze fets principals normatius, coneguts com les \u00abdotze accions\u00bb (mdzad pa bcu gnyis), especialment codificades en la tradici\u00f3 tibetana.<\/p><p>Comprenen el descens del cel Tushita, la concepci\u00f3, el naixement, les habilitats art\u00edstiques de la joventut, el matrimoni i la riquesa, la sortida, l&#8217;ascetisme, la vict\u00f2ria sobre Mara, l&#8217;assoliment de la il\u00b7luminaci\u00f3, l&#8217;activitat com a mestre i el parinirvana.<\/p><p>Aquesta estandarditzaci\u00f3 es va produir en el Mahayana i el Vajrayana nom\u00e9s despr\u00e9s del segle VII de la nostra era. El Lalitavistara ofereix el model m\u00e9s detallat. Steven Collins (\u00abSelfless Persons\u00bb, Cambridge 1982) ha exposat que aquesta codificaci\u00f3 compleix una funci\u00f3 sociorreligiosa: crea un esquema de visualitzaci\u00f3 meditativa que es pot reproduir en la <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"L'ordre establert del culte d'una comunitat religiosa.\" tabindex=\"0\">lit\u00fargia<\/span> i l&#8217;ensenyament mon\u00e0stic.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-62ba234 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"62ba234\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4c61e41 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"4c61e41\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">El Buddha com a mestre dels d\u00e9us i dels homes<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-293d475 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"293d475\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>En el <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"El conjunt de textos sagrats reconegut com a vinculant per una religi\u00f3.\" tabindex=\"0\">c\u00e0non<\/span> pali, el Buddha porta el t\u00edtol de \u00absatthadevamanussanam\u00bb, \u00abmestre dels d\u00e9us i dels homes\u00bb. Aquest t\u00edtol reflecteix la posici\u00f3 cosmol\u00f2gica de l&#8217;Il\u00b7luminat dins del model indi dels sis \u00e0mbits (d\u00e9us, semid\u00e9us, humans, animals, esperits famolencs i \u00e9ssers infernals). Tamb\u00e9 Indra (Sakka), Brahma Sahampati i divinitats menors s\u00f3n considerats deixebles del Buddha.<\/p><p>Aquesta jerarquitzaci\u00f3 no serveix a la pol\u00e8mica contra el pante\u00f3 v\u00e8dic, sin\u00f3 a la seva integraci\u00f3 en l&#8217;esquema budista. Lambert Schmithausen (\u00abBuddhism and Nature\u00bb, T\u00f2quio 1991) assenyala l&#8217;estrat\u00e8gia de l&#8217;\u00abinclusivisme\u00bb, t\u00edpica de la compet\u00e8ncia religiosa de l&#8217;antiga \u00cdndia.<\/p><p>Tamb\u00e9 Mara, l&#8217;antagonista temptador sota l&#8217;arbre Bodhi, no s&#8217;interpreta com un \u00e9sser ontol\u00f2gicament dolent, sin\u00f3 com una personificaci\u00f3 psicoc\u00f2smica de l&#8217;aferrament al devenir.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a752db3 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"a752db3\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-342dca2 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"342dca2\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">La mort del Buddha i la q\u00fcesti\u00f3 de Cunda<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4c68b86 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"4c68b86\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>El Mahaparinibbana-Sutta narra que, abans de morir, el Buddha va menjar un aliment ofert pel ferrer Cunda, anomenat \u00absukara-maddava\u00bb.<\/p><p>La traducci\u00f3 \u00e9s discutida: \u00abcarn de porc tendra\u00bb (Rhys Davids), \u00abbolets que desenterren els porcs\u00bb (Walpola Rahula), \u00abtanys joves de bamb\u00fa\u00bb. La recerca coincideix en que, despr\u00e9s d&#8217;aquest \u00e0pat, el Buddha va patir una greu crisi abdominal, probablement una intoxicaci\u00f3 aliment\u00e0ria bacteriana o un episodi d&#8217;infart mesent\u00e8ric.<\/p><p>El Buddha va defensar Cunda p\u00fablicament, afirmant que l&#8217;\u00e0pat de donaci\u00f3 que precedeix una il\u00b7luminaci\u00f3 i l&#8217;\u00e0pat previ al parinirvana constitueixen dos m\u00e8rits suprems.<\/p><p>Aquest gest ha rebut una \u00e0mplia atenci\u00f3 en la recerca perqu\u00e8 despla\u00e7a simb\u00f2licament la responsabilitat de la mort del mestre i allibera la q\u00fcesti\u00f3 de la culpa. Hellmuth Hecker ha analitzat en diversos articles sobre Cunda l&#8217;aspecte m\u00e8dic i fenomenol\u00f2gic-religi\u00f3s d&#8217;aquest episodi.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-9283984 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"9283984\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-220b27b elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"220b27b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Preguntes freq\u00fcents<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2a83b72 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"2a83b72\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>Quan va viure el Buddha hist\u00f2ric?<\/strong> La recerca m\u00e9s antiga el datava entre el 563 i el 483 abans de la nostra era.<\/p><p>Els estudis de Heinz Bechert han mostrat que la \u00abcronologia curta\u00bb, amb dates de vida al voltant del 480 al 400 abans de la nostra era, s&#8217;ajusta millor a les fonts. La recerca internacional actual tendeix a situar la seva mort entre el 410 i el 380 abans de la nostra era.<\/p>\n<p><strong>On va n\u00e9ixer el Buddha?<\/strong> A Lumbini, en l&#8217;actual sud del Nepal. El lloc ha estat identificat pel nom mitjan\u00e7ant una columna d&#8217;Ashoka del segle III abans de la nostra era.<\/p>\n<p>Quina \u00e9s la difer\u00e8ncia entre el Buddha hist\u00f2ric i el Buddha en el Mahayana? En el budisme Theravada, Shakyamuni \u00e9s el mestre hist\u00f2ric d&#8217;aquesta era del m\u00f3n. En el Mahayana, \u00e9s una de les moltes manifestacions d&#8217;un principi b\u00fadic ent\u00e8s cosmicament. Ambdues concepcions coexisteixen i es discuteixen per separat en la recerca cient\u00edfica.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Quina llengua parlava el Buddha?<\/strong> Amb alta probabilitat una llengua vernacla indo\u00e0ria antiga, probablement molt propera al magadhi actual. El pali, en qu\u00e8 s&#8217;ha transm\u00e8s el <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"El conjunt de textos sagrats reconegut com a vinculant per una religi\u00f3.\" tabindex=\"0\">c\u00e0non<\/span> m\u00e9s antic, \u00e9s una forma liter\u00e0riament polida, emparentada amb el magadhi per\u00f2 no id\u00e8ntica a ell.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":3273,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"elementor_header_footer","meta":{"_yoast_wpseo_focuskw":"Buda Gautama","_yoast_wpseo_title":"Buda Gautama \u2013 Fundador del budisme | iWell Guard","_yoast_wpseo_metadesc":"Siddharta Gautama, el Buda hist\u00f2ric, fundador del budisme, les Quatre Nobles Veritats i el Noble Cam\u00ed \u00d3ctuple. 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