{"id":171725,"date":"2026-09-05T15:41:50","date_gmt":"2026-09-05T15:41:50","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/?page_id=171725"},"modified":"2026-09-05T16:05:37","modified_gmt":"2026-09-05T16:05:37","slug":"baal-hammon-alt-deu-cartagines","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/ca\/baal-hammon-alt-deu-cartagines\/","title":{"rendered":"Baal-Hammon \u2013 Alt d\u00e9u cartagin\u00e8s"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"171725\" class=\"elementor elementor-171725 elementor-2628 elementor-bc-flex-widget\" data-elementor-post-type=\"page\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-hero e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-hero\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-hl e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-hl\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-htxt e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-htxt\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-h1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-h1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Baal-Hammon, alt d\u00e9u p\u00fanic-cartagin\u00e8s i Saturn Africanus<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-lead elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-lead\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon (p\u00fanic <em>b\u02bfl \u1e25mn<\/em>) \u00e9s el d\u00e9u mascul\u00ed suprem de la Cartago p\u00fanica i de les seves col\u00f2nies. Apareix regularment junt amb <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/ca\/?page_id=171724\">Tanit<\/a> i \u00e9s el receptor de les ofrenes votives del Tofet. En el per\u00edode rom\u00e0 va ser identificat amb Saturn.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-pillc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-pillc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-pills elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-pills\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"iwg-pill-row\"><span class=\"iwg-klasse-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"D\u00e9u de la tradici\u00f3 fen\u00edcia.\">D\u00e9u<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/ca\/fenicis-cartago-baal-tanit-proteccio\/\" class=\"iwg-kultur-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Mitologia de la tradici\u00f3 fen\u00edcia.\">Fen\u00edcia<\/a><span class=\"iwg-tradition-badge\" tabindex=\"0\" data-tooltip=\"Alta divinitat.\">Alta divinitat<\/span><\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-tocc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-tocc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-toc elementor-toc--minimized-on-tablet elementor-widget elementor-widget-table-of-contents\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;headings_by_tags&quot;:[&quot;h2&quot;,&quot;h3&quot;],&quot;minimize_box&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;marker_view&quot;:&quot;bullets&quot;,&quot;no_headings_message&quot;:&quot;No s&#039;ha trobat cap encap\\u00e7alament en aquesta p\\u00e0gina.&quot;,&quot;exclude_headings_by_selector&quot;:[],&quot;icon&quot;:{&quot;value&quot;:&quot;fas fa-circle&quot;,&quot;library&quot;:&quot;fa-solid&quot;,&quot;rendered_tag&quot;:&quot;&lt;svg class=\\&quot;e-font-icon-svg e-fas-circle\\&quot; viewBox=\\&quot;0 0 512 512\\&quot; xmlns=\\&quot;http:\\\/\\\/www.w3.org\\\/2000\\\/svg\\&quot;&gt;&lt;path d=\\&quot;M256 8C119 8 8 119 8 256s111 248 248 248 248-111 248-248S393 8 256 8z\\&quot;&gt;&lt;\\\/path&gt;&lt;\\\/svg&gt;&quot;},&quot;minimized_on&quot;:&quot;tablet&quot;,&quot;hierarchical_view&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;min_height&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"table-of-contents.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__header\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-toc__header-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\u00cdndex\t\t\t<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--expand\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Open table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-down\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M207.029 381.476L12.686 187.132c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941l22.667-22.667c9.357-9.357 24.522-9.375 33.901-.04L224 284.505l154.745-154.021c9.379-9.335 24.544-9.317 33.901.04l22.667 22.667c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941L240.971 381.476c-9.373 9.372-24.569 9.372-33.942 0z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--collapse\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Close table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M240.971 130.524l194.343 194.343c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941l-22.667 22.667c-9.357 9.357-24.522 9.375-33.901.04L224 227.495 69.255 381.516c-9.379 9.335-24.544 9.317-33.901-.04l-22.667-22.667c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941L207.03 130.525c9.372-9.373 24.568-9.373 33.941-.001z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-toc__iwgw-baalhammon-toc\" class=\"elementor-toc__body\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__spinner-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<svg class=\"elementor-toc__spinner eicon-animation-spin e-font-icon-svg e-eicon-loading\" aria-hidden=\"true\" viewBox=\"0 0 1000 1000\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M500 975V858C696 858 858 696 858 500S696 142 500 142 142 304 142 500H25C25 237 238 25 500 25S975 237 975 500 763 975 500 975Z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-hr e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-hr\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-heroimg iwg-hero-image elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-heroimg\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"683\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-683x1024.webp\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-2848\" alt=\"Baal-Hammon \u2013 Alt d\u00e9u cartagin\u00e8s\" srcset=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-683x1024.webp 683w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-200x300.webp 200w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon-768x1152.webp 768w, https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/goetter_phoenizisch_baal-hammon.webp 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 683px) 100vw, 683px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Classificaci\u00f3 i perfil breu<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s0t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s0t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon \u00e9s una de les divinitats m\u00e9s importants del m\u00f3n p\u00fanic de la Mediterr\u00e0nia occidental. Sabatino Moscati va mostrar a <em>Il mondo dei Fenici<\/em> (1966) que Baal-Hammon, tot i estar documentat a la metr\u00f2poli fen\u00edcia, hi tenia un paper secundari; a Cartago, en canvi, va assolir el cim del pante\u00f3, posici\u00f3 que compartia amb <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/ca\/?page_id=171724\">Tanit<\/a>. Dins la <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/ca\/fenicis-cartago-baal-tanit-proteccio\/\">tradici\u00f3 fen\u00edcia<\/a> \u00e9s el prototip de l&#8217;alt d\u00e9u p\u00fanic.<\/p><p>Maria Eugenia Aubet va documentar a <em>The Phoenicians and the West<\/em> (2001) la seva difusi\u00f3 mediterr\u00e0nia; hi ha santuaris de Baal-Hammon documentats a Cartago, Motya, Tharros, Sulcis, Hadrumetum i molts altres jaciments. Durant l&#8217;\u00e8poca imperial romana el seu culte continua com a Saturn Africanus i assoleix una notable persist\u00e8ncia a la prov\u00edncia num\u00eddic-mauretana fins al segle IV dC.<\/p><p>Des del punt de vista de la hist\u00f2ria de les religions, Baal-Hammon representa el tipus d&#8217;alt d\u00e9u amb aspectes ctonians i solars. Marcel Le Glay va demostrar a <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (1966) que la identificaci\u00f3 amb el Saturn rom\u00e0 es basa en la doble naturalesa de Baal-Hammon: \u00e9s tant d\u00e9u del gra i de la collita (aspecte saturni\u00e0) com d\u00e9u-pare ctoni\u00e0.<\/p><p>Les esteles del Tofet i les nombroses inscripcions registren el seu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"El conjunt d'actes de veneraci\u00f3 religiosa dirigits a una divinitat o figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culte<\/span> com una troballa central per a la hist\u00f2ria de la religi\u00f3.<\/p><p>La persist\u00e8ncia de Baal-Hammon durant l&#8217;\u00e8poca imperial romana com a Saturn Africanus \u00e9s un dels exemples m\u00e9s notables de continu\u00eftat en la hist\u00f2ria de les religions despr\u00e9s de la caiguda pol\u00edtica de l&#8217;estat p\u00fanic. Es conserven m\u00e9s de dues mil esteles de Saturn de les prov\u00edncies nord-africanes, des del segle I fins al segle IV dC.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Nom i etimologia<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s1t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s1t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>El nom <em>b\u02bfl \u1e25mn<\/em> es compon de <em>b\u02bfl<\/em> &#8216;senyor&#8217; i <em>\u1e25mn<\/em>, l&#8217;etimologia del qual \u00e9s controvertida. Una interpretaci\u00f3 relaciona <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> amb l&#8217;arrel <em>\u1e25mm<\/em> &#8216;ser calent&#8217; i veu Baal-Hammon com el &#8216;senyor de la calor&#8217;, probablement d&#8217;aspecte solar.<\/p><p>Una altra interpretaci\u00f3 considera <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> com un nom de lloc, &#8216;Hammon&#8217; (potser un indret de Fen\u00edcia), i Baal-Hammon com el &#8216;senyor de Hammon&#8217;. Una tercera possibilitat relaciona <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> amb objectes de culte d&#8217;encens (&#8216;altar d&#8217;encens&#8217;).<\/p><p>Charles Krahmalkov va recopilar a <em>A Phoenician-Punic Grammar<\/em> (2001) les variants epigr\u00e0fiques; a les inscripcions apareix com a <em>b\u02bfl \u1e25mn<\/em> o simplement <em>b\u02bfl<\/em>. La transcripci\u00f3 grega \u00e9s \u0392\u03ac\u03b1\u03bb-\u1f08\u03bc\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd (Baal-Ammon), i en \u00e8poca hel\u00b7len\u00edstica de vegades s&#8217;identifica tamb\u00e9, en traces, amb l&#8217;egipci Amon. La identificaci\u00f3 romana amb Saturn \u00e9s la m\u00e9s duradora i marca la hist\u00f2ria religiosa africano-romana.<\/p><p>En el material hebreu, Hammon apareix com a nom de lloc a Galilea; no \u00e9s clar si existeix una connexi\u00f3 hist\u00f2rica directa. En inscripcions aramees de Palmira apareix un d\u00e9u <em>\u02bfolam<\/em> amb funcions similars a les de Baal-Hammon; tamb\u00e9 aqu\u00ed la relaci\u00f3 exacta \u00e9s discutida. Des del punt de vista de la hist\u00f2ria de la religi\u00f3, Baal-Hammon \u00e9s un desenvolupament espec\u00edficament occidental.<\/p><p>Una altra hip\u00f2tesi etimol\u00f2gica relaciona <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> amb l&#8217;arameu <em>\u1e25mn<\/em> &#8216;compadir-se&#8217;, que tindria una connotaci\u00f3 teol\u00f2gica profunda; tanmateix, no est\u00e0 confirmada des del punt de vista de la ling\u00fc\u00edstica hist\u00f2rica.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Descripci\u00f3 i iconografia<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s2t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s2t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon apareix a la iconografia p\u00fanica sobretot com un anci\u00e0 barbut assegut al tron, amb corona de banyes de brau, una llarga t\u00fanica plegada i un ceptre. Aquesta tradici\u00f3 iconogr\u00e0fica est\u00e0 \u00e0mpliament documentada a les esteles del Tofet i el distingeix de <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/ca\/?page_id=171721\">Baal-Hadad<\/a>, que apareix com un jove d\u00e9u de la tempesta amb la destral al\u00e7ada. El perfil senil de Baal-Hammon el relaciona teol\u00f2gicament amb l&#8217;El ugar\u00edtic i amb Saturn.<\/p><p>El seu animal sagrat \u00e9s el molt\u00f3 o la cabra; en els rituals sacrificials p\u00fanics el molt\u00f3 era l&#8217;animal de sacrifici preferit. En algunes esteles apareix flanquejat per esfinxs o grius.<\/p><p>A Cartago hi havia una est\u00e0tua de bronze colossal de Baal-Hammon situada al temple de la ciutat; les fonts l&#8217;esmenten en relaci\u00f3 amb els <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Ofrena a una divinitat per expressar gratitud, s\u00faplica o veneraci\u00f3.\" tabindex=\"0\">sacrificis<\/span> del Tofet i se suposa que tenia mecanismes que feien caure els animals sacrificials o els infants en un foc situat a sota. La cr\u00edtica de fonts sobre aquest punt \u00e9s controvertida i avui es valora amb m\u00e9s cautela.<\/p><p>En el per\u00edode hel\u00b7len\u00edstic-rom\u00e0, la iconografia de Baal-Hammon es fon progressivament amb la tradici\u00f3 de Saturn; les esteles tardanes de Saturn del nord d&#8217;\u00c0frica (segles III i IV dC) mostren el d\u00e9u com un anci\u00e0 barbut amb fal\u00e7, seguint exactament el model de Saturn. Aquesta iconografia de Saturn Africanus \u00e9s el tema principal de Marcel Le Glay i est\u00e0 tractada extensament a la seva monografia.<\/p><p>Una font arqueol\u00f2gica impressionant s\u00f3n les nombroses estatuetes de bronze del Tofet, que mostren Baal-Hammon assegut al tron amb la m\u00e0 al\u00e7ada, un gest de concessi\u00f3 de benediccions. Aquestes estatuetes es col\u00b7locaven en part al mateix Tofet com a ofrenes votives i en part a les llars particulars.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Relats mitol\u00f2gics<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s3t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s3t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>No s&#8217;han transm\u00e8s mites propis sobre Baal-Hammon; com en el cas de <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/ca\/?page_id=171724\">Tanit<\/a>, es tracta principalment d&#8217;una figura cultual-ritual. Fonts de l&#8217;<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"\u00c8poca de la cultura grega i romana, aproximadament del 800 aC al 600 dC.\" tabindex=\"0\">Antiguitat<\/span> (Diodor, Polibi, Plutarc, Tertul\u00b7li\u00e0) esmenten sacrificis d&#8217;infants al tofet com el seu acte cultual m\u00e9s important.<\/p><p>Diodor (20.14) narra amb detall un gran sacrifici d&#8217;infants l&#8217;any 310 aC, quan Cartago era assetjada per Ag\u00e0tocles de Siracusa; en aquesta situaci\u00f3 de crisi es van sacrificar 200 nois de bona fam\u00edlia per aplacar la ira del d\u00e9u.<\/p><p>La historicitat d&#8217;aquests relats es debat des de fa generacions; es tracta de fonts pol\u00e8miques grecoromanes que cal examinar amb sentit cr\u00edtic. Tot i aix\u00f2, les troballes arqueol\u00f2giques del tofet confirmen que s&#8217;hi van enterrar nadons i infants petits en un nombre considerable; si sempre es tractava de <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Ofrena a una divinitat per expressar gratitud, s\u00faplica o veneraci\u00f3.\" tabindex=\"0\">sacrificis<\/span> o tamb\u00e9 de defuncions naturals \u00e9s objecte de la controv\u00e8rsia del tofet.<\/p><p>Agust\u00ed d&#8217;Hipona, a <em>De civitate Dei<\/em> 7.19, polemitza contra els cultes de Saturn Afric\u00e0 i descriu els sacrificis d&#8217;infants com &#8216;crudelis daemonum cultus&#8217;. Aquesta pol\u00e8mica de l&#8217;<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"\u00c8poca de transici\u00f3 entre l'Antiguitat i l'edat mitjana, aproximadament del segle III al VII.\" tabindex=\"0\">Antiguitat tardana<\/span> forma part de la construcci\u00f3 de la Cartago cristiana i cal llegir-la amb precauci\u00f3 des del punt de vista hist\u00f2ric, per\u00f2 reflecteix el lligam persistent de Baal-Hammon amb els t\u00f2pics del sacrifici infantil en la percepci\u00f3 antiga. L&#8217;avaluaci\u00f3 cient\u00edfica d&#8217;aquesta pr\u00e0ctica continua sent controvertida.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Culte i veneraci\u00f3<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s4t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s4t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>El principal lloc de culte de Baal-Hammon era el tofet de Cartago; a m\u00e9s, hi havia tofets a Motya, Tharros, Sulcis, Hadrumetum, Cirta, Lambafundi i molts altres jaciments. En cadascun d&#8217;aquests santuaris, Baal-Hammon era el receptor principal de les ofrenes votives, sovint juntament amb <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/ca\/?page_id=171724\">Tanit<\/a>. Les inscripcions votives segueixen una f\u00f3rmula est\u00e0ndard: &#8216;Al senyor Baal-Hammon, all\u00f2 que N.N. ha prom\u00e8s perqu\u00e8 l&#8217;ha escoltat&#8217;.<\/p><p>A m\u00e9s, hi havia <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un edifici que serveix per a la veneraci\u00f3 d'una o diverses divinitats.\" tabindex=\"0\">temples<\/span> urbans dedicats a Baal-Hammon, com per exemple a Thinissut i a la mateixa Cartago (<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un edifici que serveix per a la veneraci\u00f3 d'una o diverses divinitats.\" tabindex=\"0\">temple<\/span> al tur\u00f3 de Byrsa). Sabatino Moscati va documentar l&#8217;arquitectura de temples p\u00fanics en diverses publicacions.<\/p><p>Els <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un edifici que serveix per a la veneraci\u00f3 d'una o diverses divinitats.\" tabindex=\"0\">temples<\/span> segueixen un esquema tripartit: pati, sala principal i sancta sanct\u00f2rum. A l&#8217;interior hi havia la <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Representaci\u00f3 figurativa d'una divinitat, venerada en el temple o santuari.\" tabindex=\"0\">imatge de culte<\/span> o una &#8216;masseb\u00e0&#8217; (columna sagrada), aquesta darrera t\u00edpica de l&#8217;aniconisme fenici propi de la divinitat suprema.<\/p><p>Durant l&#8217;\u00e8poca imperial romana, Baal-Hammon va continuar essent venerat com a Saturnus Africanus; el seu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un edifici que serveix per a la veneraci\u00f3 d'una o diverses divinitats.\" tabindex=\"0\">temple<\/span> de Cartago va ser rebatejat i novament <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Lliurat al sagrat mitjan\u00e7ant un acte religi\u00f3s i, per tant, separat de la vida quotidiana.\" tabindex=\"0\">consagrat<\/span>.<\/p><p>El nombre d&#8217;esteles a Saturn al nord d&#8217;\u00c0frica supera el de qualsevol altra divinitat romana de la regi\u00f3; Baal-Hammon-Saturn va ser la <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un \u00e9sser venerat com a div\u00ed dins d'una religi\u00f3.\" tabindex=\"0\">divinitat<\/span> m\u00e9s important de les prov\u00edncies africanes fins al segle IV dC. La cristianitzaci\u00f3 i la invasi\u00f3 v\u00e0ndala van posar fi al seu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"El conjunt d'actes de veneraci\u00f3 religiosa dedicats a una divinitat o figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culte<\/span>.<\/p><p>Una font numism\u00e0tica important s\u00f3n els tetradracmes cartaginesos dels segles IV i III aC, que mostren la corona de banyes de bou de Baal-Hammon com a f\u00f3rmula protectora a l&#8217;anvers. Les monedes es van encunyar en gran quantitat per pagar la soldada dels ex\u00e8rcits cartaginesos i van difondre el programa iconogr\u00e0fic de Baal-Hammon fins a Hisp\u00e0nia i Sic\u00edlia.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Pr\u00e0ctica de protecci\u00f3 i elements apotropaics<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s5t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s5t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon era el d\u00e9u protector de la ciutat, de la fam\u00edlia i de les collites. A les inscripcions p\u00faniques apareix com a destinatari de vots <em>n\u0113der<\/em> en situacions d&#8217;emerg\u00e8ncia: abans de viatges, abans de batalles, en cas de malaltia, en el moment del part. La freq\u00fc\u00e8ncia de la seva <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"L'acte d'invocar o suplicar una divinitat o un poder.\" tabindex=\"0\">invocaci\u00f3<\/span> en ofrenes votives privades mostra la intensa pietat privada de la poblaci\u00f3 p\u00fanica.<\/p><p>A les entrades de les cases i als espais habitats, els seus s\u00edmbols s&#8217;utilitzaven de manera <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Que allunya la desgr\u00e0cia: dit de signes i objectes destinats a mantenir a ratlla les influ\u00e8ncies nocives.\" tabindex=\"0\">apotropaica<\/span>: la corona de banyes de bou, la fal\u00e7 i el <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un signe que representa una idea o un significat.\" tabindex=\"0\">s\u00edmbol<\/span> del &#8216;caduceu&#8217;, associat regularment a Baal-Hammon en el m\u00f3n p\u00fanic. S&#8217;han trobat estatuetes de bronze d&#8217;un d\u00e9u barbut entronitzat amb corona de banyes de bou en nombrosos jaciments d&#8217;habitatges p\u00fanics.<\/p><p data-nosnippet=\"true\">Des d&#8217;una perspectiva cient\u00edfica, la funci\u00f3 protectora de Baal-Hammon est\u00e0 fortament vinculada a l&#8217;ordre estatal, per\u00f2 tamb\u00e9 arrelada en l&#8217;\u00e0mbit personal i familiar. La pr\u00e0ctica del tofet s&#8217;ha d&#8217;entendre com una forma particular de pietat en situacions de crisi, sense que aix\u00f2 impliqui una valoraci\u00f3 positiva des del punt de vista cient\u00edfic actual. iWell Guard registra Baal-Hammon com a figura historicoreligiosa, sense cap refer\u00e8ncia a promeses de guarici\u00f3 actuals.<\/p><p>L&#8217;estreta vinculaci\u00f3 de Baal-Hammon amb la guerra p\u00fanica est\u00e0 ben documentada; el jurament d&#8217;Ann\u00edbal davant l&#8217;<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Lloc elevat o taula per a ofrenes i actes religiosos.\" tabindex=\"0\">altar<\/span> de Baal-Hammon, als nou anys d&#8217;edat, de considerar Roma sempre enemiga, \u00e9s una de les an\u00e8cdotes antigues m\u00e9s c\u00e8lebres i s&#8217;inscriu en la tradici\u00f3 dels juraments de guerra p\u00fanics.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Paral\u00b7lelismes en altres cultures<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s6t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s6t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon est\u00e0 hist\u00f2ricament relacionat amb l&#8217;ugar\u00edtic El (antic d\u00e9u pare), amb el mesopot\u00e0mic Anu, amb el rom\u00e0 Saturn i amb el grec Cronos. La identificaci\u00f3 amb Saturn \u00e9s la m\u00e9s duradora; Marcel Le Glay va demostrar a <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (1966) que aquesta sincretisme va marcar de manera fonamental el <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"El conjunt d'actes de veneraci\u00f3 religiosa dedicats a una divinitat o figura sagrada.\" tabindex=\"0\">culte<\/span> del Saturn afric\u00e0 de l&#8217;\u00e8poca imperial.<\/p><p>Amb Cronos, Baal-Hammon compartei el perfil del d\u00e9u pare anci\u00e0 amb associacions de sacrifici infantil; el <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un relat transm\u00e8s sobre d\u00e9us, or\u00edgens i l'ordre del m\u00f3n.\" tabindex=\"0\">mite<\/span> grec de Cronos inclou l&#8217;engoliment dels seus propis fills, fet que en la percepci\u00f3 hel\u00b7len\u00edstica es va vincular amb els sacrificis del tofet cartagin\u00e8s. Plutarc (<em>De superstitione<\/em>) fa expl\u00edcita aquesta connexi\u00f3.<\/p><p>Amb <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/ca\/?page_id=171714\">Kumarbi<\/a> de la <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/ca\/hitita-anatolic-tarhunna-deus-proteccio\/\">tradici\u00f3 hitita<\/a>, Baal-Hammon compartei el tipus del d\u00e9u pare enderrocat o despla\u00e7at. Des del punt de vista de la hist\u00f2ria de les religions, pertany a la fam\u00edlia internacional dels antics d\u00e9us pare mediterranis, la funci\u00f3 dels quals va ser parcialment despla\u00e7ada per la generaci\u00f3 m\u00e9s jove dels d\u00e9us de la tempesta. A la prov\u00edncia romana d&#8217;\u00c0frica Proconsular, aquesta tradici\u00f3 antiga mediterr\u00e0nia va romandre viva de manera inusualment llarga.<\/p><p>La connexi\u00f3 entre Baal-Hammon i l&#8217;egipci Amon-Re es va activar durant el per\u00edode hel\u00b7len\u00edstic; l&#8217;oasi de Siwa amb el seu <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un lloc o instituci\u00f3 on es demana un pronunciament div\u00ed.\" tabindex=\"0\">oracle<\/span> d&#8217;Amon era f\u00e0cilment accessible des de Cartago, i algunes fonts parlen de pelegrinatges cartaginesos fins all\u00e0. La import\u00e0ncia hist\u00f2rica d&#8217;aquest sincretisme \u00e9s discutida, per\u00f2 notable.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Recepci\u00f3 i investigaci\u00f3 actuals<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s7t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s7t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>La recerca sobre Baal-Hammon es troba avui en un nivell alt. <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (1966) de Marcel Le Glay \u00e9s la refer\u00e8ncia cl\u00e0ssica; Sabatino Moscati, Maria Eugenia Aubet, H\u00e9l\u00e8ne B\u00e9nichou-Safar i Lawrence Stager han fet aportacions importants a la recerca sobre el tofet. <em>Phoenician Aniconism<\/em> (2015) de Brian Doak tracta la tradici\u00f3 sense imatges de Baal-Hammon. Els estudis de Josephine Quinn sobre la identitat p\u00fanica han estat aportacions destacades en els darrers anys.<\/p><p>En la recepci\u00f3 popular, Baal-Hammon \u00e9s conegut sobretot per la controv\u00e8rsia del tofet i per la pol\u00e8mica cristiana <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"\u00c8poca de la cultura grega i romana, aproximadament del 800 aC al 600 dC.\" tabindex=\"0\">antiga<\/span>; aquesta imatge \u00e9s distorsionada i dif\u00edcilment fa just\u00edcia cient\u00edfica. Les representacions cient\u00edficament m\u00e9s diferenciades es troben en les obres esmentades.<\/p><p>Des del punt de vista cient\u00edfic, Baal-Hammon \u00e9s avui un objecte d&#8217;estudi central per a la religi\u00f3 p\u00fanica, per a la tradici\u00f3 de Saturn afric\u00e0 i per a la hist\u00f2ria de les religions mediterr\u00e0nies. Els focus actuals de la recerca se centren en l&#8217;an\u00e0lisi bioarqueol\u00f2gica del tofet, en la tradici\u00f3 de les esteles de Saturn afric\u00e0 i en la q\u00fcesti\u00f3 del component berber. L&#8217;iWell Guard el registra com a membre hist\u00f2ric del <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"El conjunt de d\u00e9us d'una religi\u00f3 o cultura.\" tabindex=\"0\">pante\u00f3<\/span>.<\/p><p>Investigacions recents de Josephine Quinn (<em>In Search of the Phoenicians<\/em>, 2018) han replantejat la identitat p\u00fanica i la seva autodefinici\u00f3 religiosa, i han posat en dubte el paper de Baal-Hammon com a &#8216;d\u00e9u dels fenicis&#8217;.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8h elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Bibliografia i fonts<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8c e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-s8t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-s8t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>La selecci\u00f3 seg\u00fcent aplega les obres de refer\u00e8ncia m\u00e9s importants sobre la recerca de Baal-Hammon. Inclou informes arqueol\u00f2gics, s\u00edntesis d&#8217;hist\u00f2ria de les religions i edicions epigr\u00e0fiques. La monografia de Marcel Le Glay \u00e9s la refer\u00e8ncia cl\u00e0ssica; Moscati i Aubet ofereixen el marc p\u00fanic; Doak, la perspectiva iconol\u00f2gica. L&#8217;estudi m\u00e9s recent de Quinn porta la recerca cap al debat cr\u00edtic sobre la identitat.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp2dce0c7c e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cp2dce0c7c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp22efe76a elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cp22efe76a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">El tofet de Cartago i les troballes d'esteles<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp207c89a8 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cp207c89a8\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp223f9336 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp223f9336\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>El principal testimoni del culte a Baal Hammon no \u00e9s un text, sin\u00f3 un recinte. Es tracta de l&#8217;anomenat tofet de Cartago, un santuari a la vora de la ciutat antiga, a l&#8217;actual barri de Salammb\u00f4. Es va excavar a partir de la d\u00e8cada de 1920. Va ser especialment destacada la campanya dirigida per l&#8217;arque\u00f2loga nord-americana i el seu equip a la d\u00e8cada de 1970, coneguda com a \u00abPunic Project\u00bb.<\/p><p>El recinte cont\u00e9 milers de petites urnes amb les restes cremades de nadons i cries d&#8217;animals, sobre les quals s&#8217;aixecaven esteles de pedra.<\/p><p>Moltes d&#8217;aquestes esteles porten inscripcions votives en escriptura p\u00fanica. La f\u00f3rmula habitual esmenta primer <em>Baal Hammon<\/em> i la deessa <em>Tinnit<\/em> (sovint anomenada \u00abTinnit, rostre de Baal\u00bb), i despr\u00e9s el nom del donant i la seva petici\u00f3.<\/p><p>Aquestes inscripcions constitueixen la font epigr\u00e0fica m\u00e9s densa que existeix sobre la religi\u00f3 p\u00fanica i fan de Baal Hammon la <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un \u00e9sser venerat com a div\u00ed dins d'una religi\u00f3.\" tabindex=\"0\">divinitat<\/span> cartaginesa millor documentada.<\/p><p>La interpretaci\u00f3 del tofet \u00e9s objecte de controv\u00e8rsia des del segle XIX. Autors <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"\u00c8poca de la cultura grega i romana, aproximadament del 800 aC al 600 dC.\" tabindex=\"0\">antics<\/span> grecs i romans com Diodor i Plutarc informen de sacrificis infantils cartaginesos, i una part de la recerca hi veu la confirmaci\u00f3 arqueol\u00f2gica.<\/p><p>Una posici\u00f3 contr\u00e0ria, defensada entre altres per Sabatino Moscati i posteriorment per altres investigadors, interpreta el recinte com un cementiri per a criatures que ja havien mort de causes naturals. Estudis osteol\u00f2gics m\u00e9s recents dels ossos cremats no han resolt definitivament el debat. Per a la descripci\u00f3 de Baal Hammon, aix\u00f2 significa que el seu lloc de culte m\u00e9s important \u00e9s, alhora, la troballa m\u00e9s controvertida de l&#8217;<span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Ci\u00e8ncia que estudia cultures passades a partir de troballes materials.\" tabindex=\"0\">arqueologia<\/span> p\u00fanica.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp2d8c90e4 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"cp2d8c90e4\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp239ab422 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"cp239ab422\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">La interpretatio: Saturn, Cronos i la perviv\u00e8ncia en \u00e8poca romana<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp22113ba9 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-child\" data-id=\"cp22113ba9\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cp234d4277 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"cp234d4277\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal Hammon no va desapar\u00e8ixer amb la destrucci\u00f3 de Cartago l&#8217;any 146 aC. A l&#8217;\u00c0frica romana va continuar existint sota el nom de <em>Saturnus Africanus<\/em>, un dels cultes m\u00e9s \u00e0mpliament documentats de la prov\u00edncia d&#8217;Africa.<\/p><p>Centenars d&#8217;esteles a Saturn d&#8217;\u00e8poca romana mostren que la poblaci\u00f3 p\u00fanica seguia venerant la seva antiga divinitat principal sota nom rom\u00e0, amb trets iconogr\u00e0fics propis, com el d\u00e9u representat sota un vel o amb fal\u00e7.<\/p><p>Ja els grecs havien identificat Baal Hammon amb <em>Cronos<\/em>, cosa que t\u00e9 un paper important sobretot en els relats sobre sacrificis infantils, ja que Cronos devorava els seus propis fills.<\/p><p>Els romans van triar despr\u00e9s Saturn, el d\u00e9u equivalent llat\u00ed de Cronos. Aquesta <em>interpretatio<\/em> \u00e9s per a la recerca una eina de doble tall: d&#8217;una banda mostra continu\u00eftat, de l&#8217;altra superposa a la figura p\u00fanica concepcions grecoromanes.<\/p><p>La q\u00fcesti\u00f3 de qui era origin\u00e0riament Baal Hammon no es pot respondre, doncs, nom\u00e9s amb la tardana equaci\u00f3 amb Saturn. Es discuteix si l&#8217;ep\u00edtet <em>Hammon<\/em> fa refer\u00e8ncia a un top\u00f2nim, potser la Hamath del nord de S\u00edria o una muntanya, o b\u00e9 al mot sem\u00edtic per a \u00abbraser\u00bb o \u00abaltar d&#8217;encens\u00bb.<\/p><p>Eric Gubel, Paolo Xella i altres han treballat sobre aquestes q\u00fcestions sense arribar a un consens. Nom\u00e9s \u00e9s segur que la m\u00e0scara romana de Saturn constitueix la capa m\u00e9s recent, no l&#8217;original, de la figura. Sobre la <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"Un \u00e9sser venerat com a div\u00ed dins d'una religi\u00f3.\" tabindex=\"0\">divinitat<\/span> sem\u00edtica occidental de la mateixa arrel del nom, vegeu tamb\u00e9 <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/ca\/?page_id=171727\">Yam<\/a> al <span class=\"iwg-fachbegriff\" data-tooltip=\"El conjunt dels d\u00e9us d'una religi\u00f3 o cultura.\" tabindex=\"0\">pante\u00f3<\/span> ugar\u00edtic.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-lit e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-lit\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-lith elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-lith\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Bibliografia (selecci\u00f3)<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-litc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-litc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-litt elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-litt\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div data-nosnippet=\"true\"><ul><li>Marcel Le Glay: <em>Saturne africain<\/em> (Paris 1966)<\/li><li>Sabatino Moscati: <em>Il mondo dei Fenici<\/em> (Milano 1966)<\/li><li>Maria Eugenia Aubet: <em>The Phoenicians and the West<\/em> (Cambridge 2001)<\/li><li>H\u00e9l\u00e8ne B\u00e9nichou-Safar: <em>Le tophet de Salammb\u00f4 \u00e0 Carthage<\/em> (Rom 2004)<\/li><li>Brian Doak: <em>Phoenician Aniconism<\/em> (Atlanta 2015)<\/li><li>Josephine Quinn: <em>In Search of the Phoenicians<\/em> (Princeton 2018)<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgkw2-add-baalhammon e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgkw2-add-baalhammon\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgkw2-add-baalhammon-t elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgkw2-add-baalhammon-t\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baal-Hammon apareix com a d\u00e9u suprem p\u00fanic-cartagin\u00e8s, els santuaris tofet del qual a Cartago demostren la seva posici\u00f3 com a m\u00e0xima divinitat protectora; en la fase romana continua sent venerat com a Saturnus Africanus.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-kwd e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-kwd\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-kwdc e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-kwdc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-kwdt elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-kwdt\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><em>Termes clau relacionats: Baal-Hammon Cartago P\u00fanic Saturnus Tofet Sacrifici infantil Africana.<\/em><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-cc e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-cc\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" id=\"iwg-cc-baal-hammon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccinner e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-ccinner\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-cch elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-cch\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">iWell Guard i tradicions de protecci\u00f3<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-cct elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-cct\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div data-nosnippet=\"true\"><p>iWell Guard s&#8217;inspira en la tradici\u00f3 cultural i hist\u00f2rica dels objectes de protecci\u00f3 port\u00e0tils, seguint la tradici\u00f3 de <a href=\"https:\/\/iwell-guard.com\/ca\/fenicis-cartago-baal-tanit-proteccio\/\">Fenici<\/a> i de moltes altres cultures d&#8217;arreu del m\u00f3n. 41 capes, or aut\u00e8ntic, plat\u00ed, plata, fabricat a Alemanya. Dret de devoluci\u00f3 de 30 dies.<\/p><\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb iwg-cc-button iwg-cc-cta-2026-05-13 elementor-widget elementor-widget-jet-button\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-ccb\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"jet-button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-jet-button jet-elements\"><div class=\"jet-button__container\"><a class=\"jet-button__instance jet-button__instance--icon-left hover-effect-1\" href=\"\/ueber-iwell-guard\/?utm_source=iwell-guard.com&amp;utm_medium=info-box&amp;utm_campaign=wesen-tradition\"><div class=\"jet-button__plane jet-button__plane-normal\"><\/div><div class=\"jet-button__plane jet-button__plane-hover\"><\/div><div class=\"jet-button__state jet-button__state-normal\"><span class=\"jet-button__label\">M\u00e9s informaci\u00f3 sobre l'iWell Guard<\/span><\/div><div class=\"jet-button__state jet-button__state-hover\"><span class=\"jet-button__label\">M\u00e9s informaci\u00f3 sobre l'iWell Guard<\/span><\/div><\/a><\/div><\/div><style>.elementor-element.elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb .jet-button__instance{width:320px;height:56px;}.elementor-element.elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb .jet-button__state-normal .jet-button__label{text-align:center;margin:0px 0px 0px 0px;color:#1a1b20;font-family:Montserrat,sans-serif;font-size:13px;font-weight:400;letter-spacing:4px;line-height:1.714em;text-transform:uppercase;}.elementor-element.elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb .jet-button__state-hover .jet-button__label{text-align:center;margin:0px 0px 0px 0px;color:#FECC76;font-family:Montserrat,sans-serif;font-size:13px;font-weight:400;letter-spacing:4px;line-height:1.714em;text-transform:uppercase;}.elementor-element.elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb .jet-button__plane-normal{background-color:#FECC76;border-style:solid;border-color:#C99540;border-width:2px 2px 2px 2px;}.elementor-element.elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccb .jet-button__plane-hover{background-color:rgba(0,0,0,0.55);border-style:solid;border-color:#FECC76;border-width:2px 2px 2px 2px;}<\/style>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iwgw-baalhammon-ccd elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iwgw-baalhammon-ccd\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div data-nosnippet=\"true\"><p style=\"text-align:center;font-size:13px;opacity:0.7;margin-top:14px\" data-nosnippet=\"true\">Les experi\u00e8ncies personals poden variar. 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